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Below are samples of assignments submitted for this course with names removed so as not to violate anyone's privacy.

They are examples of the quality of work I expect.

The assignments you see here are not necessarily the best work for that assignment
but examples chosen at random from among all of the assignments I consider well done.

I change assignments from time to time so make certain you are looking at an example based on your current assignment rather than a previous assignment.

In assignments that ask for specific right or wrong answers, I have substituted Xs for the answers so as not to tempt you!

If you don't see an example of a particular assignment, it's because I haven't yet found one to post.

The basic idea behind the Tragedy of the Commons is that many people act in their own interest when they exploit the natural resources of our planet for monetary gain. The dilemma exists between the ability for free enterprise to exist and the avoidance of the depletion of the resources for future generations. A balance must be found between the two.

The rain forest is an excellent example of a resource that produces conflicts with long term human goals of economic growth. On one hand people live and rely on the rainforest for their existence. It is where they hunt, make their homes and live. Additionally, many varieties of wildlife depend on the rain forest as their habitat. And finally, the rainforest is a shared resource for the production of oxygen in our atmosphere. On the other hand, the wood that is produced from harvesting the rainforest is necessary for continued growth and development of human expansion. Thus the conflict arises between the balance of maintaining the rainforest and harvesting the lumber. Another example of a shared resource that could conflict with human goals is overfishing. Overfishing not only depletes the population of the fish in the oceans, but it also disrupts the wildlife of the sea creatures. Although fishing creates great revenue for many businesses, it also can be very harmful to the environment as a whole.

When we overuse shared resources there are definitely consequences for the population as a whole. When we exploit one resource by over harvesting we are at a great loss when it is depleted. This therefore places the future in jeopardy without the ability to draw from that resource.

The legendary city of Atlantis was said to be in existence over 11,000 years ago. The land was filled with good soil that provided for good farming and harvesting. Animals big and small would roam the land. I am for the existence of Atlantis and do believe that it was once filled with many natural resources. And that it was also destroyed due to greed and power corrupting the people. That just seems logical when you think of how things operated back in the day when gods such as Zeus existed. If he felt people were acting out of line, he would simply gather a meeting to acknowledge others and completely destroy the problem, even it being an entire city.

I feel that Plato has many facts for Atlantis in the story Critias. Plato goes into great detail with the land and even lists the rings that surrounded the top. Even though it goes into great detail of the measurements of the widths and depths of the rings, he also explains how each one is covered in a different type of metal. One tin, one brass, and the other orichalcum. These metals completely covered both sides of all three rings and acted as walls.

Concepts in which we are learning in class include geographic locations and pin pointing on maps. If the city of Atlantis disappeared how can it be geographically located and pin pointed? Although there may be many facts about the city, if we still to this day cannot locate it, how do we know its true existence? This along with the Lemuria or Mu may all be false. If we knew the geographic location we would be able to search this site and recover the artifact that was left behind. This evidence can back up the existence of the lost city of Atlantis.

Atlantis was the home of Poseidon. It was there that he met this mortal woman Cleito. Together they had five sets of twins. Did gods of love, water, fire and such really exist back in that day? Where did they go or do they still exist today? Or was there always just one god, the religious one we all know? The existence will definitely be false if the gods who were said to have lived there and raised families there never existed. Many rich metals were on the land of Atlantis. Orichalc was mined from the land and was second in value next to gold. At the top center, Poseidon had a golden statue of himself on a chariot pulled by winged horses. All the rings surrounding the top of the Atlantis had metal walls on both sides. How can all this valuable metal in such large quantities go untraceable? I feel that if simple forks, spoons and jewelry can be recovered from incidents many years ago such as titanic, metals as large as this should be easily retrievable.

Theory of Atlantis

The theory of Atlantis in which I believe in would have to be that the island originated off the coast of the Caribbean and the banks of the Bahamas. Here, topographers have discovered that “the sea floor(s) on the northern side of Cuba, Haiti and Puerto Rico indicate a definite system of submerged valleys of ancient rivers, combined with sunken mountain ranges.” (Crystal links) Also, along the Biminis Islands off the coast the Bahamas, both the Biminis Road and a crystal sphere, discovered by J. Manson Valentine and Dr. Ray Brown, were led to have been artifacts from the lost city of Atlantis. Even though the valleys, rivers and mountain ranges were found in slightly a different area than the Biminis Road and Crystal Sphere, I’ve come to conclude that if there was a city of Atlantis I’d speculate that the city would be in the area of what is known today as the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, Puerto Rico and the bodied water that surround them.

In Plato’s stories, Critias and Timaeus, he describes Atlantis, the people who lived there and what the rulers did and to the island of Atlantis. In Critias, Plato describes to us how the mighty God Poseidon used his powers to move land and water masses to conduct the safety of his love, Cleito. He also supposedly brought five pairs of twins to the island to control Atlantis and the islands around it. Now for someone to believe how Poseidon moved landmasses or even huge masses of water to protect his love Cleito is totally someone’s opinion. I can’t say that this occurrence is false because I wasn’t present at the time, but it doesn’t mean I believe it occurred. Soon after his land and water mass moving Poseidon “begat” five pairs of twins in which he divided the land among each child to own and rule. Plato then moves on describing how wealthy the environment was, as far as growing plants, foods and even generating enough supplies to build pyramids, walls and even buildings. He tells us how each King (twin) was very wealthy, each maintaining their own temple and controlling the land they were given. Building rock walls and roads, each king set out to control the area they concurred.

From what I have read from Critias I find it hard to believe a lot of things that occurred and what I believe is that it was just a story brought down from past generations before Plato. The only thing that I can say that has been left as evidence from the belief of Atlantis is that recently we have discovered the Biminis Road (or wall, we don’t really know which) and a Hidden Pyramid both off the coast of the Bahamas. Both of these artifacts have either been studied or seen by others to possibly assume that each artifact came from the remnants of Atlantis.

In Timaeus, Plato describes how Atlantis came to its end by stating: “[Atlantis was brought to its end by] violent earthquakes and floods; and in a single day and night of misfortune all your warlike men in a body sank into the earth, and the island of Atlantis in like matter disappeared in the depths of the sea. For which reason the sea in those parts is impassable and impenetrable, because there is a shoal of mud in the way; and this was caused by the subsidence of the island.” (Page 2) By stating this, Plato is letting us know how Critias describes how the island of Atlantis was destroyed and buried in the depths of the ocean. From hearing this we can speculate that earthquakes and floods do occur time to time so I would consider this a fact, but when someone says that an earthquake and flood destroyed a massive piece of land thousands of years ago it’s hard to believe that’s its true when the situation hasn’t really occurred in our lifetime. The action of flooding Atlantis was supposedly set out by the great god of Zeus. Reason for doing this was because Zeus saw corruption and greed flood throughout Atlantis and he and the other Gods decided to take action by flooding and destroying the city of Atlantis.  From reading the two stories told by Plato, I believe that more than 90 percent of each story is based on someone’s opinion rather than actual facts, considering that they were just dialogues of stories passed down from generation to generation by people; Not really including actual evidence that the existence of Atlantis was true.

Class Work Dealing With Atlantis

1. From Pangaea to modern today, plate tectonics have been moving our lithosphere every day. Depending on which way each tectonic plate moves will determine the outcome of the lithosphere. It’s very possible to assume that an island like Atlantis could have had a plate shift under it possibly changing the lithosphere in that area. It’s safe to assume this because we have evidence that shows each continent shift a couple of inches every year.

2. Some believe that the Atlanteans were part of the Mayan civilization because of known Maya artifacts found in Mexico, Guatemala, and other places around the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. This could have been possible through Cultural Imperialism which is the “active promotion of one’s cultural system over another."

Arguments Dealing With Atlantis

"Atlantis: Theories." The Active Mind Directory. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Feb. 2010. <http://www.activemind.com/Mysterious>

"Critias: Page 1." The Active Mind Directory. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2010. <http://www.activemind.com/Mysterious/Topics/Atlantis/critias_page1.html>.

Crystal, utilization of other currents originating from the Great,  pictures, like modern television. In the same manner, even heat, and giving illumination. "Crystals, Atlantis, Pyramids, Ray Brown, Cayce." Crystalinks Metaphysical and Science Website. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2010. <http://www.crystalinks.com/crystalpyr.html>.

Crystal, utilization of other currents originating from the Great,  pictures, like modern television. In the same manner, even heat, and giving illumination. "Crystals, Atlantis, Pyramids, Ray Brown, Cayce." Crystalinks Metaphysical and Science Website. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2010. <http://www.crystalinks.com/crystalpyr.html>.

"Lemuria - Crystalinks." Crystalinks Metaphysical and Science Website. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2010. <http://www.crystalinks.com/lemuria.html>.

"Olmec Civilization - Crystalinks." Crystalinks Metaphysical and Science Website. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2010. <http://www.crystalinks.com/olmec.html>.

actions, the greatness of her, and the magnanimity of her words in dealing. "Timaeus: Page 1." The Active Mind Directory. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2010. <http://www.activemind.com/Mysterious/Topics/Atlantis/timaeus_page1.html>.

Part A

After analyzing the pictures in slides 1-10 I noticed many obvious differences and similarities. Aspects such as architecture, landscape, economy, and tools and technology were helpful traits that help identify the cultures shown in the pictures. It appears that in the pictures that display characteristics of older and less modern landscapes and architecture that people move at a more relaxed pace and place value on socializing and inter-personal relationships.

An example of this can be seen in pair one. The first picture shows a modern society with people on the move and not interacting with the people around them. Then in the second picture although it’s obvious it is a modern time because of how the people are dressed the general feeling you get from the people is that they are more relaxed and more focused on socializing with each other.

In many of the pictures it seems that bodies of water (oceans, rivers, lakes) are used in various ways. In some photos, such as in pairs two, three and nine, the water serves commercial and economic purposes. While in other photos, such as in pairs two, seven and nine, it is used for leisure and recreational reasons. Some of the traits that were identifiable by looking at a picture were music and dance, medicine, education and gender roles. It appears that regardless of the age of the city or whether it seemed modern or not the general prosperity of the city was reflected in how well it was maintained and cared for.

Part B

The first city, Beijing, China would be classified as a political city. The roads seemed laid out concentrically. Within the center of the map are many buildings dedicated to honoring rulers of the past and their accomplishments, such as the Palace Museum, Memorial Hall and the CCTV Military Museum. The religious buildings such as temples are surrounding the inner city allowing easy access to many places of worship rather than having one centrally located building.

The second city, Delhi, India would be classified as a cosmic city. The builders of the city have intentionally combined both residential and commercial areas together including the president's estate, which is surrounded by the city itself.

The third city, Malacca, Malaysia would be classified as colonial. The influence of colonial powers can be seen in such buildings as St Peter's Church, St Paul's Church and Christ Church, all which suggest Western influence. In addition there is a Proclamation of Independence Memorial building, which further suggests occupation by a foreign entity.

The fourth city, Mecca, Saudi Arabia is classified as a sacred city. The center of this city is the Holy Mosque. Every major road in this city leads to that Mosque. Although there are many mosques throughout the city this particular mosque seems to be more important than all the others, and therefore the center of all activity. Although not shown in the map one of the five pillars of Islam states that every Muslim is required to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, the birth place of its founder Mohammed, once in their life.

The final city Cairo, Egypt, is classified as a commercial city. The focus of this part of the city is built around businesses. There are no residential or religious sites, and the Town Hall is on the outskirts of the city. This city provides lots of transportation, hotels, shopping and galleries, all geared toward commerce.

[I ADVISE AGAINST COPYING THE ABOVE ... ONE OF THE CHOICES IS WRONG!]

I cannot begin to describe the feelings of disgust, emptiness, despair, sorrow and hopeless I experienced while watching this documentary. To think that I have been living my life by the old proverb of “out of sight out of mind” what a typical view of an American I have become! These people are just trying to get ahead by means of uprooting everything and hoping for a better future somewhere else and then someone plays on their fears, inept or no language skills and unfamiliarity of other governments and judiciary systems. Those bastards! This is shocking, unpleasant and just down right wrong and all because of the HUGE amounts of money being made by these sub-humans, the traffickers and brokers of this type of cargo. The numbers alone were staggering and unacceptable but here is the question, what to do and where do we begin to help. The bills and reform that has been passed by the U.S. (in 2000) and other countries is too little too late and demand is over riding the effort to help eradicate these types of atrocities.

It is human nature to try to provide better and protect your family so you are going to go where the commodities are that you need to survive. If it is a job that is needed then, you will go to the place with the job and so on. I would almost think this is a “push – pull” effect but it is “supply – demand” effect. As long as there are countries that are crumbling economically or politically and are not safe the people will migrate toward the promise of a better or safer life. Anyone in our class, if they were to find themselves in any of the situations given in the documentary would do the same. Except that I feel that a significant amount of Americans have no idea of the perils that the rest of the world faces due to our over abundance of “stuff” we tend to enjoy as Americans. I felt that I understood the women that were in the documentary even though they were a world away from me, I could feel their desperation for a better life, really just survival. To say a better life sounds so trivial ... it is survival. We will never help this situation without ensuring that the human rights of these migrant people get the significance and action they ought to have.

The difference between human smuggling and trafficking is that a smuggler makes a business deal with you, you pay them, they take you to the agreed destination then you both go your separate ways. A human trafficker is a person that uses force, fraud, and coercion to get you where they want you… into slavery or labor of some sorts. This is a crime of human rights. I know that in the beginning they are committing a criminal act by breaking laws to come into a country illegally but then that same person becomes a victim. Migration has helped these “free” countries they are destined for but not in this manner. It is not good for the country or the immigrant.

So my answer is yes, it is a moral obligation to do something about this problem. Maybe, the U.S. could legalize prostitution so that there is less of a demand and put laws in place to discourage this type of crime and possibly start a wave to other countries to do the same like the essay (on the wide angle website) stated. Possibly start programs to help provide jobs so that they are not driven to leave their homelands. We will never be able to eradicate the problem; it is too large and worldwide. But we could try to alleviate some of the problems little by little, program by program. The second part of the question “is it a cultural choice no less valid simply because we don’t understand it” this made me think that is not the answer. We do not understand several other cultural practices that happen such as honor killings/ customary killings but, that does not make those human violations any less valid.
Only one “success” story of Henry was still appalling but the one that seemed most familiar was Antonio from Mexico and they “smuggled” him to the U.S. Here is where I formed my opinion about the difference of smuggling to trafficking. Henry became a victim out of an initial criminal act /business deal. I wish that there would be some way to allow these people to come in our country with proper paperwork that is easier to obtain then to have them resort to a trafficker. But that is just what it is a wish, not feasible in the least. After 9/11 that is not really a possibility. This problem is so large, where in the world (literally) would we begin?

My Model of Terrorism

1. Yes-group used threat and commission of violence (method 1), and did not use diplomacy (method 2). Achieved loss of life (target). The ideological reason is independence (motive 2). Achieved goal of making themselves known (motive 3) and making the occupying force feel unsafe (motive 1).

    Assessment 2-Yes: the assessment of the act stands

2. No-while the people have an ideological motive they have not met the conditions of instilling fear or exposure. Missing target and motive 1 & 3.

    Assessment 2- No: assessment of the act stands, still missing elements of terrorism.

3. No-the commission of violence was done in order to cause among a small group terror but not exposure. Missing motive 3.

    Assessment 2-No: while I detest the concept of ethnic cleansing I still think the underground nature of the crime precludes the label of terrorism.

4. No- Asks for violence but does not threaten violent acts (missing motive 1). Does not necessarily seek exposure (missing motive 3).

    Assessment 2- No: while the action of actually blowing up clinics or killing doctors is terrorism, until an act is committed there is no justification for prosecution.

                        Believing that someone should die is not a crime-it’s certainly hateful rhetoric but not terrorism.

5. Yes- violent acts are committed without diplomacy, military (or state associated people) are killed, radical rebel group are identified, and takes away feeling of safety.

    Assessment 2- Yes: the question this asks (similarly to #1) is if a group with a justified cause is allowed to use terrorist tactics and I side with no.

                        Gandhi and MLK proved that a just cause will eventually prove itself through peaceful means. 

6. Yes- kills or kidnaps people, seeks to exclude them from diplomatic action, indiscriminate to civilian or military, makes others afraid to oppose government, ideological reason is whatever policies are in place, relies on word of mouth exposure to people within country for exposure.

    Assessment 2- Yes: this still has every element present

7. Yes-commits acts of violence regardless of civilian status, intention is to instill fear in other women, ideological reasoning within the religion, seeks exposure amongst other women to behave differently.

    Assessment 2- Yes: all elements are still present.

8. Government can be considered terrorist-acts of violence committed against paramilitary and civilian targets, makes others afraid to act similarly, seeks exposure to masses that any similar attempt will yield similar results. Group did not achieve terrorism because the attack was solely on government target and did not achieve loss of life.

    Assessment 2- Yes:  I did a brief look into this and it turns out that the Muslim Brotherhood did achieve loss of life, so both parties used terrorist actions. 

This exercise was quite interesting. In spite of my Irish Ancestors rolling in their graves I still have to call Michael Collins and the IRA terrorists. I think that’s the main point, but it led me to a new point as well. I think the reason that there is no agreed upon model of terrorism in the international community is because governments would also have to be looked at under that microscope. By leaving an edge of ambiguity it allows a certain shield for history. Unfortunately it also allows many acts to skate a line of justification and many other acts to be labeled as terrorism for the political capital it affords those rallying against the offending party.

Until a definition is achieved hearts and minds can continue to be pushed into line with a political agenda. That being said, I remain unconvinced that one will be written into the books anytime soon. In my estimation the most difficult part in achieving such a definition is cultural difference. People in the U.S. live quite a different life than an Iraqi Kurd or a Burmese child soldier; these differences make it difficult to understand one another’s concept of “justification” or “necessary action.”

In regard to my personal model of terrorism, it mostly stood – the only time I changed an answer was with additional information and confirmation of loss of life in the last example. I think the main reason is because I kept my definition quite broad and didn’t allow the additional information to bring my politics into the equation. Additionally, I think there’s a tendency to judge based on ideology rather than on action, which is something else I tried to avoid. These are things that I don’t think can be done on a world stage heavily reliant on political alliances.

The course concepts that I used in this exercise are as follows:

Centrifugal forces – in most acts of terrorism there is some kind of rift that exists and is being acted upon. The ideology involved can be separatism – a group seeking autonomy – or even religion – a group wishing to impose their view onto those around them.

Both of these are examples of political conflict, but this exercise also calls on the concept of political allegiance. Specifically in reviewing my model I touch upon the concept that political allies are operating with understood agreements to ignore acts that would be considered terrorism by their foes.

Finally, one of the biggest underlying factors of this assignment is culture. Culture determines what people believe terrorism is and who gets branded with the term. Cultural differences make it difficult for us to agree upon a model of terrorism.

My Model of Terrorism

_YES_ 1. A paramilitary group seeking independence blows up the military headquarters of the occupying force. The group's warning that there will be a bombing is ignored and many people, civilian as well as military, are killed.

_YES_ 2. Rebels seeking to set up an independent state fire at occupying troops from concealed positions.

_YES_ 3. Members of a particular ethnic or religious group are killed in order to frighten other members of their group into fleeing the territory.

_YES_ 4. A radical group makes a list of opponents it believes should be killed and distributes it to sympathizers, telling them that they will be rewarded in heaven for defending the innocent if they carry out these assassinations.

_YES_ 5. More than a dozen undercover agents of the state are killed in one day by a radical rebel group.

_YES_ 6. A government routinely "disappears," tortures and murders civilians as well as political and military leaders whom it suspects of opposing the regime.

_YES_ 7. A militant religious group attacks, among others, women it feels are acting in an immodest fashion in public in order to pressure other women to behave in a certain way.

_YES_ 8. Religious militants attack members of the government including an assassination attempt on the president. The government responds by sending in troops and destroying an urban area where the religious militants are based, killing more than 10,000 people in the process including many civilians.

2^nd time results and explanations

_NO_ 1. A paramilitary group seeking independence blows up the military headquarters of the occupying force. The group's warning that there will be a bombing is ignored and many people, civilian as well as military, are killed. : This situation looks like the British took in armed Jewish personnel and the Jewish fought back by bombing the British office in the King David Hotel. This looks more like an act of war then an act of terrorism.

_YES_ 2. Rebels seeking to set up an independent state fire at occupying troops from concealed positions. : This shows that these rebels were trying to use tactics to proceed in state firing; in my definition of terrorism this would show that this would be considered a terrorist act.

_YES_ 3. Members of a particular ethnic or religious group are killed in order to frighten other members of their group into fleeing the territory. : This shows that people were hurt in the process of someone or a group of people trying to make these religious groups flee away from their homes. By bombing them this shows an act of terrorism.

_YES_ 4. A radical group makes a list of opponents it believes should be killed and distributes it to sympathizers, telling them that they will be rewarded in heaven for defending the innocent if they carry out these assassinations. : I would still consider this a form of terrorism since these sympathizers are trying to hurt certain doctors. By murdering these doctors I still believe that this would be a form of terrorism because these people share different beliefs towards abortions than others.

_NO_ 5. More than a dozen undercover agents of the state are killed in one day by a radical rebel group. : This is a more difficult situation because we really don’t know why the IRA and Michael Collins murdered these 14 British secret agents. More information would need to be uncovered to tell if this was an act of terrorism.

_YES_ 6. A government routinely "disappears," tortures and murders civilians as well as political and military leaders whom it suspects of opposing the regime. : I believe this is still considered an act of terrorism due to the fact that these murders were planned and executed. Harming others because these governments believed something that might not have been true leads me to the state that this is still a terrorist act.

_YES_ 7. A militant religious group attacks, among others, women it feels are acting in an immodest fashion in public in order to pressure other women to behave in a certain way. : It’s the same with this situation. By using force to hurt and threaten women for something they feel like they don’t need to do makes me think this should also fall under as an act of terrorism.

_YES_ 8. Religious militants attack members of the government including an assassination attempt on the president. The government responds by sending in troops and destroying an urban area where the religious militants are based, killing more than 10,000 people in the process including many civilians. : Even though the Syrian government was attacked they still fired upon innocent civilians who lived near the religious attackers and I would still consider this an act of terrorism due to the fact that the government used armed forces, which in the end killed many civilians.

Summary:

After reading each real life scenario, I had a couple of changes that I felt weren't acts of terrorism but in the most part, I still believe that most of these scenarios were acts of terrorism. Both #1 and #5 had me thinking due to the fact that #1 sounded like an act of war and #5 didn’t have enough information in it to actually state if it was or was not an act of terrorism. In these certain cases you need to be able to know who carried out the harmful act and why to determine if the situation is considered a terrorist act or not.

The term Terrorism makes a huge impact on people around the world like you and me today. Whenever I think of the word terrorist or terrorism I relate back to the bombings of the twin towers in New York. The term terrorism can be used as effective political tool towards your opponent because the word itself is known in such a negative way that it scares people when you tell them that their opponent is a terrorist. There are many different categories of terrorism but by having a single consistent definition of the term, it easier to define someone or a group of people as terrorist. In all, terrorist harm and intimidate others by inflicting pain onto those people. When people are addressed to the term terrorism, they usually think of death, intimidation and even war because of previous occurrences when dealing with terrorist.

Brazil’s culture, politics and economics all tie together when discussing the country’s make up. Culturally, Brazil has been experiencing one the highest levels in inequality among citizens in the past decade that they have seen in a long time. This differs with our country because the status of a man and a women in America is designed to be equal, and this concept is very different in Brazil. It has, however, reached its first Millennium Development Goal by reducing the amount of the population living in extreme poverty by half, far before the 2015 deadline. They experienced this income growth thanks to labor income where inequality between citizens was reduced through the increase of education, partnered with non-labor income. Its political and social policies have assisted in circulating the wealth. In the 1990’s Brazil was hit with a stream of neo-liberal reforms, and this is what caused the increase in inequality and poverty among the people. In a response to that was a change of left-leaning governments that took power in the 2000’s, during which time both those things decreased. This country’s political power seems to stem from its democratic republic, with a presidential system. This recent experience of economic growth has played a major role in the overall raising the wealth in the country. They have programs aimed at removing both short-term and long-term poverty through prompt cash transfers and long-term investment in the country's human development. Brazil seems to be more economically stable than the Sub-Saharan African country I have chosen to analyze, Nigeria, but less stable than the Southeast Asian country, Malaysia.

Malaysia appears to be a conservative society, undergoing a reform in the system of censorship, including censoring things such as movies and TV trying to maintain its predominately Muslim population. The Malaysian government defined Malaysian culture through the making of the "1971 National Culture Policy". It describes three principles as guidelines for Malaysian culture. They are primarily based on the cultures of native people; that if components of another culture are deemed acceptable then it will be considered a part of the Malaysian culture, and that Islam will be an important part of the nation. They hold dearly to what seems to be national religion of Islam. This differs from the US because in the States you are encouraged to practice whatever religion you like. Civil rights seem to be a much discussed topic and is being addressed. Many laws and reforms have been put in place, such as laws that allow police to “detain suspects for preventive reasons”. Their leader seems to be a progressive reformer trying to move towards modernization. Many economic reforms were put in place last year with the aim of modernizing the economy as well. They seem to stand as a more stable country compared to the other two countries I have analyzed.

Nigeria has recently undergone an election which has dominated the press and the people’s thoughts over the past year. The results of this election have caused much violence and chaos throughout Nigeria. The election seemed to be divided by religious affiliation. The candidate, Dr. Jonathan, won the election and was supported in the “Christian” population of the southern parts of Nigeria, and the challenger, General Buhari, seemed to be supported by the “Muslim” population in the northern parts of Nigeria. Christian places of worship, ethnic northern minorities, and families originally from southern parts of Nigeria were the primary targets of the post-election violence. The violence that stemmed from this election shows that a major section of Nigerian voters had lost faith in the country to organize free and fair elections, despite the attempts of the national election commission to organize credible polls. The people of this country seemed to never have had faith in their leaders and it is very hard for them to modernize into a government where the authorities are doing what is best for the people and not for themselves. Nigeria needs more structure in the political realm as compared to the US. Despite being the largest producer of crude oil in Africa, a majority of Nigerians live on around 2 dollars a day, according to the United Nations' figures. Youth unemployment is more than 72 percent in some parts of the country. This shows the country’s weakness, which is their economic stability. They cannot maintain a solid governmental structure without resulting in an even weaker economic state.

Citation:

National Public Radio. “Thai Leader Rejects Ultimatum to Disband Parliament.”

NPR.org. Web. 15 March 2007.

Description:

Tens of thousand of red shirted protesters, representing the—largely urban—poor protested in the streets of Thailand demanding the government dissolve parliament and call elections early.  The protesters feel the government has come into power illegitimately and want to have an opportunity to vote for a new leader.  The current Prime Minister, Abhisit Vejjajiva, said that the demonstrators’ demands could not be met immediately but that their ideas would be heard.  The Prime Minister was brought to power after a military coup took place in 2006.  The poor feel that the leadership has been unfair to the poor and many are supportive of the former leader, Thaksin Shinawatra, who they feel was more in touch with the lower class.  Thaksin Shinawatra was removed from power following charges of corruption.  The protesters believe that the charges were false and that the real reason for the former Prime Minister’s removal was his closer ties to the poor community.

Global Pattern Judgment:

I think we are beginning to see a global pattern of protests and people having a feeling of dissatisfaction with their governments. In Mongolia 10,000 protesters demanded the same as Thais and in Kyrgyzstan protesters recently took over the government and forced the President to flee the capital.  There were also protests in Ecuador in March.  These are incidents that happened this year. Last year there were protests in Iran. In 2007 there were protests in Burma.  While I think that some protests get more/better coverage in the media, I do think that there is a pattern of anti-government protests in non-Western states. It also seems that Asia is particularly unsettled in regard to these issues.

Underlying Structures:

The crux of most of the protests we are seeing seems to be economic disparity and a feeling of isolation of exclusion on the part of the protestors toward their governments.  These elements tie into topics that we discussed or read about within the realms of political and economic geography.  I believe that we are beginning to see these things more frequently since the worldwide collapse of the banking industry and rising inflation began squeezing the poorest citizens past their breaking points. Another large factor is Globalization, and the effect of the bombardment of citizens with images of the West. In these countries the divide between the haves and the have-nots has always been a chasm.  The thing that changed is that now there are constant reminders of how much better things are in other places. When they were more insulated from the excess outside of their villages I think that the people felt that how they lived was just how things were.  Now they’re constantly reminded that many people are living better. These concept were highly related to our discussions and reading about cultural geography.  Some of the external factors to the poverty have to do with physical geography.  In particular the Mongolian example has much to do with this.  Certain land is more difficult to tame and has an effect of the prosperity of an area.  I think one of the reasons that Asian countries are showing this unrest more quickly ties into population geography.  The tension in highly populated areas tends to be much more quickly manifested because so many strain resources more quickly. 

Possible Structural Solutions:

I think that there are solutions but they may be considered a little too “pie in the sky” to truly be implemented.  I think that the root cause of economic disparity is largely to blame and thusly could be solved through programs that would distribute resources more equally.  Now, that is not to say that I believe a communist solution is in order.  I believe that there is a way to expand infrastructure improvement and educational improvement into poorer areas.  Unfortunately the culture sometimes stands in the way of these things.  When a group is considered the ruling class, it is hard to change the mindset of people to be more inclusive.  However, nowhere was this the case more than in India, and they are managing to change minds, so it can be done.  The important thing is for people to feel that they are being heard and solutions are being attempted.  I think if that feeling of inclusion was spread there’d be more satisfaction and less unrest. 

Iceberg Model analysis:

I really like the iceberg model as a tool.  I think that it helps us to take our thinking one step further and hopefully get a better insight.  I think if more people used this as a tool they’d spend less time and resources treating symptoms instead of the actual cause of the symptoms.  This would lead to a greater effectiveness in implementing change.  I think that iceberg model can be universally applied, assuming that you have proper knowledge of the subject at hand.  Obviously, it is not always necessary to use the tool.  In small fringe type scenarios it would prove useless because you cannot necessarily get to the root cause of one person’s or a small faction’s actions.

The concept of international aid is one that can bring on a passionate debate among friends at a cocktail party and utter standstill on the floor of congress or a meeting of the United Nations. Many people have an opinion on aid to less fortunate countries, but what are the fundamentals of the debate? Some people prefer an approach they feel is more scientific in nature and side with Herbert Spencer in his belief of Social Darwinism. Some believe that the world can only be enhanced through aid, and see the main problem as being one of lack of funding. Still others feel the main issue is that aid is poorly managed and is doing more harm than good under the current system. The question that we will explore here is whether or not aid to countries helps them, or simply creates a cycle that involves more aid.

To adequately consider our topic we must first understand the ideas behind Social Darwinism. Herbert Spencer is actually the person who coined the phrase “survival of the fittest” and his context was more in the realm of social systems than organic systems. He drew a correlation to the natural word and borrowed terminology from the scientific community, but his intention was not one of scientific and empirical study. Spencer was drawing an analogy which would later be taken as science. Spencer’s ideas were largely dismissed after the Eugenics movement and The Nazi party used these concepts as justifications for their acts. However, it’s worthy of note that Spencer’s theories did not advocate eradication of inferiority. His belief was more social and political and revolved around the concept of allowing the weaker to be bred out or die out. His fundamental idea was that by helping the weaker we encourage the propagation of those weaker traits. He also believed that societies experience a linear progression and that interference in that progression allows societies that are meant to die off to live. From where we sit today these ideas seem barbaric at best, but is there a reason to believe that “survival of the fittest” should be our national and political policy?

It seems to me that the very phrase “survival of the fittest” is one that suffers from a terrible case of misinterpretation. The connotation of the phrase is completely bereft of any matter of truth. When someone says “survival of the fittest” we immediately think in terms of war and strength. The idea has been morphed in our minds to be associated with might. This, however, is not actually the case in nature. As Le Page points out, the lack of clarity centers on the concept of “fittest.” What is fittest is something that can only be determined by the circumstances at hand, and what is strongest does not always apply. While everyone can agree that a sledgehammer is more powerful than a ball-peen hammer, one would not likely hang a family portrait on their wall using the former. In nature, there is a tendency toward packs. Think about how many animals actually live a solitary existence—it is not many, and it certainly isn’t a high percentage of the total animal population. This correlation can be drawn to humans as well, from time immemorial we’ve formed into groups. This indicates that cooperation is, in fact, a very fit behavior. The issue of fitness cannot be used to justify non-attendance to the weaker amongst us, since the principle of cooperation proves to benefit the cooperating members of the group.

If we agree that cooperation is our best chance at survival, then we’re led to the concept of aid. What is the benefit of human societies helping other societies? To look at it in terms of straight economics or politics, I think the case is quite hard to make. Societies that are in need of aid are unlikely to bear fruit in the realm of quid pro quo, so what is the driving force? In short, I think it becomes an issue of morality. If we decide to classify humans on a scale similar to how we classify animals, then we have to consider the relative ideas shared among human beings. The principle biological aspects are easy to classify, but what of the ideological drives? Human beings are driven by more than just survival. While this may be true of animals, it’s something that is hard to empirically prove.

In a human animal the evidence is quite easy to gather due to our ability to communicate. This is how culture develops—it is passed from generation to generation and from group to group through communication. To try to even scratch the surface on how many different ways we manifest these ideological drives within the scope of this paper would be fruitless. I will, however, offer an example for the sake of clarity. A few days ago in Russia two women walked into subway terminals and blew themselves up, killing many around them along with themselves. This is not something that is uncommon in today’s political environment. Suicide bombings are prevalent in many parts of the world. This clearly points to a drive that supersedes survival. The act itself ensures physical death for the propagation of an ideal. How does this apply to aid? Simply put, people throughout the world in a variety of societies and cultures feel a moral obligation to help those in need. Regardless of the root of that morality—be it a religion or simply a cultural belief—the result is an ideological drive to help.

If we agree, then, that aid is something that we’re likely to continue based on most societies predilection to promote helping others as a behavior, we must then look at the current state of aid. Currently there are many aid agencies set up through the governments of different nations, so how well is that funding being used? When empirically studied, the aid agencies are not achieving any real progress. There are divergent schools of thinking on this topic. The first group counts among their members author Jeffery Sachs, and believes that the problem is not enough funding. The second group, largely led by author William Easterly, takes the position that funding is not being properly utilized due to systemic failures. When I started writing this paper I believed that I would be in the first camp, but upon viewing the research, find myself firmly in the Easterly school of thought. The amount of aid dollars being increased, as it has been consistently, has never had any empirical evidence of increasing efficacy. This leads me to a conclusion that the amount of funding being adequate or inadequate cannot be understood until the use of the current funding is proven to bear results. Once goals are quantified and results are measured we can return to the issue of whether or not more funding is better. Until then we are, in essence, throwing good money after bad.

The concept of aid seems to be an example of good intentions without structure. Often, though we mean well, improper planning can lead to disastrous results. My research led me to conclude that Social Darwinism is not a code that current people are willing to live with. I personally don’t believe in it either. Comparing human culture and thinking to the animal kingdom is just illogical. Humans and animals are separated by a great number of things, not the least of which is humans’ ability to be motivated by things that are outside the realm of survival. I think we should help those in need, but we also need to be mindful of how that help is delivered. I think the current structure of most aid groups is leading to an ambiguous goal that cannot possibly be measured or achieved. Without a measure of success and failure work being done is at worst, causing more problems and at best, lending ineffective assistance. This has not changed my fundamental belief that aid is something worthwhile to invest in, but it has made me believe that we should examine aid groups’ action plans before funding is released. Once aid is brought to a measurable result we can determine if more funding is necessary. Until then, I look forward to the next cocktail party—where I can offer a new perspective on the topic.

The doubling time for Australia is X years.

The doubling time for Chad is X years.

The doubling time for China is X years.

The doubling time for India is X years.

The doubling time for Mayotte is X years.

The doubling time for Saudi Arabia is X years.

The doubling time for Thailand is X years.

The doubling time for the United States is X years.

When a country has a slow growth rate population there are positive and negative impacts on the community. Characteristics of a low growth rate population include little variety in race, educational levels, and socioeconomic statuses. A positive impact on the physical environment is that the resources are not used as frequently and there is more untouched land available to cultivate. Depending on the population of the country, a negative aspect of a low growth rate is that there would not be as many people to work the land.

A country with a low growth rate would benefit in that its culture and traditions would be more likely to stay true to their origins and would be more likely to be passed on to future generations. A negative result would be that changes for the better would be slow and new ideas and innovations would be less likely to form and be accepted.

Politics in a low growth rate population would have advantages in that leaders would have a better understanding of the demographics of their constituents, who are more constant and predictable. That would in turn cause the constituents to feel heard and empowered. The economy in a low growth rate population would benefit from less competition within businesses. Economic development would be slow. One would be less likely to see monopolies and more likely to see the success of small businesses who have stood the test of time. However, with low growth within the population, one might expect to see less ingenuity and new businesses cropping up as would happen in a population in which the population is growing rapidly. As was true in the physical effects on the country, slower population growth would limit manpower and available workers.

Countries with a high growth rate population trend are characterized by more diversity in races, educational levels and socioeconomic statuses. Greater variety does not necessarily mean more success. It simply means that there are more categories in which to place people.

A country with a high growth rate tends to lean toward growth in every aspect of the civilization. While a high growth rate does not always mean higher population, there would seem to be a larger work force available simply because the population is growing at a higher rate. Consequently, this would naturally cause resources to be used up faster, thus degrading the physical environment. As a population grows rapidly, the environment would be stressed in order to keep up with the needs of the people.

Culture in a high growth population would be an ever-evolving and changing entity. High growth assumes new cultures and traditions are being introduced into the present culture, causing them to meld and even create new traditions. The negative consequences of this would be the loss of original traditions and cultural customs.

Politics in a high growth area must be constantly changing and evolving as well with the changes and growth in the population. As the population grows, constituents’ needs and wants change as well. In a democratic society of high growth, there would tend to be more variety in candidates, and also more variety of ideals and perspectives on issues. This could consequently lead to so many choices that confusion sets in and leaders lose touch with their constituents.

In a high growth population the economy would benefit from a bigger variety of businesses, higher productivity and more selection for the consumer. Development would be common and ingenuity and competition would keep business owners working to constantly improve and please the consumer. In the mean time, small businesses would suffer because of stiff competition from large corporations, which are taxed differently and whose profits are secured through stock holders.

The area I decided to visit for my assignment was Helotes, Texas. I had lived on the Northwest side of San Antonio and had seen the signs for Helotes a million times but I had never been there. When I got to the town I decided that I would go into the area labeled Old Town Helotes Special District. This part of the town is located on Old Bandera road. I observed the area from the turn off of Highway 16 (roughly the NW corner of Old Bandera) to the circle that splits Old Bandera Road off from Riggs Road (this route roughly travels southwest).

The physical geography of the area is a blend of San Antonio with a toe stretched toward the Hill Country. The land itself around this location is steeply hilled and Old Bandera Road is flanked on one side by much higher topography. The land here then gently levels off with a slight decline past the location where I visited. The leveling of the land here could be somewhat natural but probably reflects the use of the land through time. There are still quite a lot of big fields around the private properties along this route which were likely farmed or graze areas for ranchers in the past. About three quarters of the way of my entire location, Helotes Creek crosses under the street level. The land where the creek runs has been carved out but where the creek runs is not a steep cut into the land. In imagining the old west, this creek would be a prime reason for settling this valley. The climate, like all of San Antonio is humid subtropical. On the day I went it was a beautiful spring day with a temperature around 80 degrees and a lovely cool breeze. The climate would have made this area a great location for ranching in the past.

The Cultural Geography is very clear in this area. This is an area very much steeped in cowboy culture. Many of the buildings are likely original buildings that have been made into new businesses. There are many large corrugated metal buildings that were likely used for feed storage and barns. In addition many of the buildings are constructed out of limestone, a material that would have been in abundance in the past. There are many small shops that I believe were made from old homes, whereas the larger shops were likely public buildings. All the physical construction recalls a past of ranchers in a village hamlet. This indicates a cultural landscape very tied to the old ranching styles. While the people here likely make their living at corporations now, they still feel close to the cultural ways that founded the town. Additionally, this is a preservation area-- I saw a sign from the Texas Historical Society. The town of Helotes has chosen to make this a shopping and eating district, perhaps in some way to preserve and remember the past.

The population of this area seems to be Caucasian, young, and middle class. I saw many teenagers walking around and getting into Ford F-150s and Mustangs. I did see some middle aged couples walking around to the shops, mostly driving newer SUVs and family sedans. There was not a lot of foot traffic, but the majority of the people I saw were teenaged boys. The stores in the area run the gambit, from antiques, to sporting goods, to real estate, with several restaurants peppered in. The restaurants were quite varied—there was El Chaparral Mexican Restaurant, Floore’s County Store, The Old Taste Bistro and a place called Wine 101. These places represent a mixture of restaurants that you would expect to find for a sort of younger, middle class crowd.

The distribution of power in the community is not all that evident except in the sense of the preservation of this area. When driving to get to this strip, there are many strip malls that are quite new along Highway 16. It is clear that the community put money into the area and invested in getting businesses there. That can be deduced from the signage alone. The area is labeled with signage that even has its own logo. There are also perfect sidewalks and an abundance of parking places; these are things that planners put money into when they’re trying to build up business in a district. While the historic buildings are being preserved, the area is being used for business.

The economic attributes of the area have been touched upon throughout the other areas. Based on my observations of vehicles and stores it seems firmly rooted in middle class America.

The one place that epitomized the nature of the area for me was Floore’s Country Store. It’s a funny little place, like something you expect to see in a movie. There is an enormous back area that is where bands play. It is filled with picnic tables and you can nearly hear the crowd when you walk back there. Willie Nelson has played many times at this venue, a fact that they are quite enthused about. There is a sizable bar and there are countless cowboy hats and boots strung up in the ceiling. I did not eat but there were many tables where one could do so. I plan on taking any of my out of state friends or relatives there, simply because it’s precisely what they all picture before they get here. I have never seen a place quite like Floore’s but I am glad I found it. I just can’t wait to bring my east coast friends and family for a get-down good time!

I found this observational project very interesting on many levels. I think that it’s important to remind yourself to pay attention every once in a while. So often we walk through daily life in a fog of thoughts that we have no idea what is really around us. I am wholly guilty of this offense. In this project I had to really open my eyes and ask myself what the things around me meant. Not just as they were, but also what their connection was in a greater story. However, there are some things that are just not possible to know without some research. I found myself at one point, standing in front of someone’s house, trying to approximate when I thought it was built. I assure you, I am completely unqualified to do so. I don’t know much about architecture or building materials, so in that regard the endeavor was not likely to bear fruit. On the other hand, I think it’s pretty cool that I was looking at the details and trying to figure it out. If I did have a base knowledge to apply, those details would have meant everything. I think that observational research is more effective in procuring a greater curiosity. I think the act of engaging yourself with a subject in a physical way leads to a greater desire to pursue that subject academically. I think that observational research is more challenging because you are not being directed, but you have to determine what it is you’re trying to learn. I believe that observational research has an ability to connect you with your subject matter. I think that it enhances the depth of your understanding. I think direct experience is more involving and makes material stick in your mind. When you make connections to the material you are learning, you are much more likely to retain it and grasp its significance. There are natural limits to what you can observe. In some cases, only observing something with no additional resources, could lead you to draw faulty conclusions. For example, perhaps Helotes Creek was not naturally occurring and was built in order to facilitate the water needs of the town. In that case, what I observed would be faulty. The only way for me to know for sure would be to research the topic further. I think another limit to observational research is that you cannot know specifics. For example, I could deduce that the limestone buildings were likely original, but I have no idea what year they were built. Additionally, I don’t know for sure if all of the buildings there are original, or if some were built with original materials to fit in. I could easily find those things out by doing academic research. I think that both of these methods are necessary if we want to gain a significant understanding of our subject matter.

Sub-Saharan Africa- Africa south of the Sahara is poorer and more rural than Latin America and the Caribbean. It has a young population and includes 48 states and one territory. This region is the fastest growing. However, income levels are very low and life expectancy is only 48 years old. This region is known for poverty, disease, violence, and refugees.

Where Sub-Saharan Africa- It is that portion of the African continent south of the Sahara Desert. The unity of this region if from the similar livelihood system and shared colonial experience.

Cultural and economic Details- Cultural bonds developed from a variety of lifestyles and idea systems. Most Africans understand and speak several languages. The African economy is marginal when compared with the rest of the world. The gross national product of just one country which is South Africa accounts for 36% of the region's total economic output.

Environmental Geography- Sub Saharan Africa is known as the plateau continent. The interior is dominated by extensive areas of geological uplift that formed huge elevated plateaus. Even though the region has biodiversity it still suffers from poor soils, widespread disease, and drought.

Africa's Environmental Issues- Africa suffers from scarcity and degradation. Sudden environmental changes have dramatic effects and can cause migrations, famine, and death.

·         Desertification- The expansion of desert like conditions as a result of human activities. For example: Poor agricultural practices and over grazing.

·         Drought- Most common in the Horn of Africa, southern Africa, and the Sahel.

·        The Sahel and Desertification- The Sahel is a symbol for the dangers of unchecked population growth and human-induced environmental degradation.  IT is a zone of ecological transition between the Sahara to the north and wetter savannas and forest in the south.  Life depends on a balance of limited rain, drought-resistant plants and transhumance.

                o       Transhumance- The movement of animals between wet-season and dry-season pasture.

                o       Overgrazing is a cause of Sahelian desertification

·         Deforestation- Sub-Saharan Africa still has forests. However, most of the region was turned into grasslands or agricultural lands.  The woodlands are few. Deforestation causes problems of soil erosion and shortages of biofuels.

                o       Biofuels- Wood and charcoal used for household energy needs. An example is cooking.

                o     Community Based non governmental organizations (NGOs) - Village women have organized NGOs to plant trees & create greenbelts to meet future fuel needs.

·         Wildlife Conservation- Sub-Saharan Africa is known for its wildlife. There is no other region with abundance and diversity of large mammals. Wildlife has survived because of the history of low population density. The sleeping sickness and other diseases have kept people out of many areas.

                o       African people have developed way to coexist with wildlife

                o       Wildlife is declining due to population pressure, political instability, and poverty.

                o       Poaching is a major problem.

                o       Wildlife reserves are in East Africa, Kenya and Tanzania. These reserves are tourist attractions and economically important.

Plateaus and Basins- A series of plateaus and elevated basins dominate the African interior and explain the region's physical geography. Elevations seem to increase toward the south and east of the continent.

·         The Great Escarpment- A cliff separating two level areas. Much of southern Africa is rimmed by this landform. It begins in southwestern Angola and ends in northeastern South Africa.

·         Watersheds- The four major rivers systems are the Congo, Niger, Nile, and Zambezi. Smaller rivers are locally important but drain smaller areas.  The Congo River is the largest watershed in terms of drainage and volume. The Niger River is the source of water for the arid countries of Mali and Niger. The Zambezi River is the smaller river and is the major supplier of commercial energy.

·         Soils- Sub-Saharan Africa's soils are mostly infertile. The areas with fertile soils are in the Rift Valley.

Climate and Vegetation- The Sub-Saharan Africa in the tropical latitudes and is the largest tropical landmass. The region averages high temperatures. Rainfall determines the vegetation belts. The three biomes of the region are tropical forests, savannas, and deserts.

·         Tropical forests- The center of Sub-Saharan Africa falls in the tropical wet climate zone. The world's second largest equatorial rainforest is in the Congo Basin. It is constantly war and precipitation falls year round. Commercial logging and agricultural clearing have degraded the western and southern fringes of the forest.

·         Savannas- They are around the Central African rainforest in a great arc. There are wet and dry savannas. Savannas are dominated by a mixture of trees and tall grasses in the wetter zones next to the forest belt. In the drier zones there are shorter grasses and fewer trees.

·         Deserts- The major deserts are located in the southern and northern boundaries of the region.

                o       Sahara- The world's larges desert and one of the driest.

                o       Horn of Africa- The northeastern corner and includes Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Eritrea.

                o       Namib Desert- This is in coastal Namibia and rainfall is rare.

Population and Settlement- Sub-Saharan Africa's population is growing quickly and is a young population. For example, 44% of the people are younger than 15. Only 3% of the population is older than 65.  There are high child mortality rates as a result from little access to health services. There is also a low life expectancy as a result from the AIDS epidemic.  The growth of cities has become a major trend. However, Sub-Saharan Africa is not densely populated. Six states hold about half of the region's population. These states are Nigeria, Ethiopia, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Tanzania, and Sudan.

Population Trends and Demographic Debates- The population growth in certain areas and the decline of economics has made people worried of this region's well being.

·         Family Size- There is a preference for large families. However, by the 1980s the government officials stated that smaller families and a lower population were need for a better economic development. The reason many want large families are for:

                o       Family lineage and status

                o       Rural life makes large families an asset. Children are a good source of labor

                o       Children are seen as social security and grown children are expected to that care of their parents.

The Impact of AIDS on Africa- Southern Africa is ground zero for the AIDS epidemic. In South Africa more than 5 million people are infected with HIV/AIDS. As of 2005, 25 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa were infected. The virus is thought to have originated in the Congo forest and was transferred from Chimpanzees to humans in the 1950s.  Sub- Saharan Africa can not afford medications because they are expensive and do not have money for any treatments. In the 1980s Uganda has started campaign awareness for AIDS and as a result HIV among women has declined.

Patterns of Settlement and Land Use- People are scattered throughout the region. The areas with the highest population concentration are in West Africa, highland East Africa, and the eastern half of South Africa. Africa is also becoming more urban so patterns of settlement are becoming more concentrated.

·         Agricultural Subsistence- The staple crops are millet, sorghum, and corn. The areas with annual cropping have greater population density.

                o       Shifting cultivation/Swidden- Process that involves burning natural vegetation to release fertilizing ash & planting crops. Unable to support high population densities.

·         Plantation Agriculture- Plantation Agriculture is designed to produce crops for exports. For many states this is important economically. Many African Countries rely on one or two exports. However, the region's share of world exports has decreased.

·         Herding and Livestock- The care of livestock is important in Sub-Saharan Africa especially in the semiarid zones. Camels and goats are the primary animals in the Sahara.

                o       Pastoralists- They graze their stock on the stubble of harvested fields.

                o       Tsetse Flies- There has been infestations of tsetse flies. They spread sleeping sickness to cattle, humans, and some wildlife.

Urban Life- Sub-Saharan is the least urbanized region. However, their cities are growing twice the national growth rates. If the trends continue, half of the region's population may be living in cities by 2025. Rural to urban migration are causing the cities to absorb more people and use more resources.

·         West African Urban Traditions- The West African coastline is spotted with cities like Dakar, Senegal, north Lagos, and Nigeria.

·         Urban Industrial South Africa- The major cities of southern Africa have a colonial origin. Most of these cities grew as administrative or mining centers. The foundations of South Africa's urban economy rely on mineral resources.

                o       Apartheid- An official policy of racial segregation that shaped social relations in South Africa for almost 50 years.

                        Whites occupy the largest and more desirable parts of the city. The economic differences between racial groups make integration difficult.

Cultural Coherence and Diversity- Sub-Saharan Africa is more than four times larger than Europe or South Asia.  African identity was created through a history of slavery and colonialism. The cultural expressions of the people such as music, dance, and art are joyous.

·         Language Patterns- There are multiple languages used to reflect tribal, colonial, and national affiliations.

                o       African Language Groups- There are three unique languages in the region which are Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisa. The other three languages such as Afro-Asiatic, Austronesian, and Indo-European are associated with other parts of the world. The Niger-Congo language is the most important in the region.

                o       Language and Identity- Distinct tribes formed that consist of a group of families with a common kinship, language, and definable territory.  Individual languages have become important for communication on a national scale.

                o       European Languages- Most Sub-Saharan countries have continued to use the language of their former colonizers for government and education. The two large blocks of European language that still exist are Francophone Africa and Anglophone Africa.

·         Religion and Global Cultural Exchange- Native African religions are classified as animist.

                o       The Introduction and Spread of Christianity- Christianity first came to northeast Africa. Currently, half of the population of Ethiopia and Eritrea is Coptic Christian. The Dutch brought Calvinist Protestant faith in the 1600s.

                o       The Introduction and Spread of Islam- Islam began to advance into Sub-Saharan Africa 10,000 years ago. Today orthodox Islam prevails most of the Sahel.

                o       Interaction Between Religious Traditions- Religious conflicts has historically been serious in northeastern Africa. Muslims and Christian have been rivals for centuries. There has however been a peaceful coexistence among faiths, which is a distinguishing feature of Sub-Saharan Africa.

                o       Globalization and African Culture- The slave trade set in patterns of cultural diffusion. Slavery damaged the demographics and political strength of African societies. Slavery impacted the entire region. As a result, there were a blending of African cultures with Amerindian and European ones.

Geopolitical Framework: Legacies of Colonialism and Conflict- Human settlement is unmatched to any other region. This region presents a complex mosaic of kingdoms, states, and tribal societies. The Europeans changed the patterns of social and ethnic relations.

European Colonization- The Europeans took centuries to gain control of Sub-Saharan Africa.

·         The Disease Factor- The main reasons for Portuguese failure was the disease environment in Africa. The Portuguese had no resistance to malaria and other diseases. Half of all Europeans who went to Africa died within a year. In the 1850s European doctors discovered that quinine protected them against malaria.

·         The Scramble for Africa- European colonization increased in the 1800s which was called the scramble to Africa. The European forces succeeded everywhere except Ethiopia.

                o       Berlin Conference- The conference in 1884 where 13 countries gathered to discuss Africa. They divided Africa into European colonial territories. No African leaders attended the conference.

·         Establishment of South Africa- South Africa was one of the oldest colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa and was the first to gain independence form Europe in 1910.  Their economy is the most productive and influential of the region.

                o       Apartheid- The policy of separateness was enforced in 1948 when the Afrikaner's National Party was in control

                o       Homelands- Apartheid led to homelands, which were independent ethnic territories for blacks. Homelands were on marginal land, overcrowded, and poorly serviced.

Decolonization and Independence- Decolonization happened quickly and peacefully beginning in 1957. France, Britain, and Belgium decided they wanted to withdraw form their African empires in the late 1950s.

·         African Union- A continent-wide organization that was created to mediate disputes between neighbors.

·         Southern Africa's Independence Battles- Independence did not come easily to Southern Africa. In Rhodesia the problem was the presence of white residents who owned large farms.

·         Apartheid's Demise in South Africa- Its governed remained committed to white supremacy in the 1980s. The first change came in 1990 when South Africa withdrew from Namibia.

Continuing Political Conflict- Most Sub-Saharan countries had a peaceful transition to independence however all of them faced a difficult set of institutional and political problems.

·         The Tyranny of the Map- Different ethnic groups found themselves forced into the same state with people of distinct linguistic and religious backgrounds.

                o       Tribalism- Loyalty to the ethic group rather than the state. It has been the most difficult political problem.

                o       Refugees- People who flee their state their state because of a well founded fear of persecution based on race, ethnicity, religion, or political orientation.

                o       Internally displaced persons- People who have fled from conflict but still reside in their country of origin.

·         Ethnic Conflicts- More than half of the states in this region have experienced wars since 1995.

                o       Genocide- The deliberate and systematic killing of a racial, political, or cultural group. The US government accused the Sudanese government of genocide. The conflict is still unresolved and tens of thousands are risk of starvation.

                o       The deadliest ethnic and political conflict in the region has been in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

·         Secessionist Movements-

                o       The Igbo in southeastern Nigeria declared and independent state of Biafra in 1967.

                o       In the 1990s Somalia politically disintegrated. The territory has been ruled by clans. Clans are social units that are branches of a tribe or ethnic group larger than a family.

                o       Only one territory has successfully seceded which is Eritrea. Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia in 1993.

Economic and Social Development: The Struggle to Rebuild- Sub-Saharan Africa is the poorest and the least developed world region. Only a few regions are counted among the middle income economies of the world. The rest are ranked at the bottom of most global list comparing per capita GNI.

·         Structural adjustment programs- Programs formed as a result of the economic and debt crisis of the 1980s and 1990s. Programs used to reduce government spending, encourage the private sector, and refinance foreign debt. These policies can sometimes cause hardships on the poor.

Roots of African Poverty- In the past many believed that Africa was poor due to its environment. For example their infertility of its soils, the erratic patterns of its rainfall, the scarcity of its navigable rivers, and the persistence of diseases. However, now it is believed that historical and institutional factors cause poverty.

·         Failed Development Policies- The period of economic growth ended in the 1980s and commodity prices declined. The large amount of foreign debt weighed down many countries. Many believed the governments introduced economic policies that were counterproductive.

·         Corruption- Corruption is widespread in African countries.

                o       Nigeria is ranked as the world's most corrupt country.

                o       Kleptocracy- A state where corruption is so institutionalized that politicians and government bureaucrats siphon off a large percentage of the countries wealth.

Links to the World Economy- Sub-Saharan Africa's connection with the world is limited especially by trade.  The level of overall trade is low with in the region and outside of it. The majority of African countries get their imports form Europe.

·         Aid versus Investment- Sub-Saharan Africa is linked to the global economy through financial aid and loans rather than by goods.

·         Debt Relief- In 1996 The World Bank and the IMF proposed to reduce debt levels for heavily indebted poor countries. Under this new program, Sub-Saharan countries will be given substantial debt reduction.

Economic Differentiation within Africa- The large difference in economic and social levels is a huge and continuing problem. Groups of states formed trade blocs to facilitate intraregional exchange and development. The Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) are the most active.

·         South Africa- South Africa is the powerhouse of the region and has a well developed industrial economy.

·         Oil and Mineral Producers- Sub-Saharan countries benefit from large oil and mineral reserves and small populations. An example is Gabon with oil wealth.

·        The Leaders of ECOWAS- Nigeria has the largest oil reserves in the region. Ivory and Senegal were formerly the core territories of the French Sub-Saharan empire and still function as commercial centers.

·         Life for the Region's Poorest- Livingstone and Marimba used to have three dozen clothing manufacturers that employed hundred of people but after the flood of used clothing from the West many people went into poverty. The region's poor depends on used clothing.

Measuring Social Development- Measures of social development in Africa are extremely low by world standards.  However, there have been some positive trends in social development.

·         Life Expectancy- Sub-Saharan Africa's life expectancy is the world's lowest. Countries infected with HIV/AIDS have life expectancy below 40 years old. Some progress has been made in enhancing life expectancy in this region. The causes of low life expectancy are related to poverty, environmental hazards, and environmental or infectious diseases.

·         Health Issues- A lack of doctors and health facilities explain the high mortality rates in this region. A major problem has been the severity of the disease environment. Malaria has remains a major killer and even survivors may never regain health.

Women and Development- Development cannot be made without economic contributions of African women being recognized. Women account for 75% of the labor and produce more than half the food consumed, in agriculture.  Within the informal sector, women dominate.

·         Status of Women- The social position of women is difficult to measure in this region. In the actual labor force women are showed gender equality. However there is inequality and discrimination when it comes to polygamy and the tendency for males to inherit property over women.

·         Building from Within- Support groups and networks have formed, raising women's awareness and offering women micro-credit loans for small businesses, and organizing their economic power.

Chapter 5 Summary

The Caribbean

-isolated proximity: a concept that explores the contradictory position of the Caribbean states, which are physically close to North America and economically dependent upon that region. At the same time, Caribbean isolation fosters strong loyalties to locality and limited economic opportunity.

I. Environmental Geography: Paradise Undone A. Environmental Issues

1. Agriculture's Legacy of Deforestation

2. Managing the Rimland Forests

-rimland: the mainland coastal zone of the Caribbean, beginning with Belize and extending along the coast of Central America to northern South America.

3. Failures in Urban Infrastructure

4. The Sea, Islands, and Rimland

5. Greater Antilles

-Greater Antilles: the four large Caribbean islands of Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico.

6. Lesser Antilles

-Lesser Antilles: the arc of small Caribbean islands from St. Maarten to Trinidad.

7. Rimland States

B. Climate and Vegetation

1. Hurricanes

-hurricanes: storm systems with an abnormally low-pressure center sustaining winds of 75 mph or higher. Each year during hurricane season (July-October), a half dozen to a dozen hurricanes form in the warm waters of the Atlantic and Caribbean, bringing destructive winds and heavy rain.

II. Population and Settlement: Densely Settled Islands and Rimland Frontiers A. Demographic Trends

1. Fertility Decline

2. The Rise of HIV/AIDS

3. Emigration

-Caribbean Diaspora: the scattering of a particular group of people over a vast geographical area.

B. The Rural-Urban Continuum

1. Caribbean Cities

2. Housing

III. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Neo-Africa in the Americas

-creolization: the blending of African, European, and even some Amerindian cultural elements into the unique sociocultural systems found in the Caribbean.

A. The Cultural Impact of Colonialism

1. Plantation America

-plantation America: a cultural region that extends from midway up the coast of Brazil, through the Guianas and the Caribbean, and into the southeastern United States. In this coastal zone, European-owned plantations, worked by African laborers, produced agricultural products for export.

-mono-crop production: agriculture based upon a single crop.

2. Asian Immigration

-indentured labor: foreign workers (usually South Asians) contracted to labor on Caribbean agricultural estates for a set period of time, often several years. Usually the contract stipulated paying off the travel debt incurred by the laborers. Similar indentured labor arrangements have existed in most world regions.

B. Creating a Neo-Africa

-African Diaspora: the scattering of a particular group of people over a vast geographical area.

1. Maroon Societies

-maroons: runaway slaves who established communities rich in African traditions throughout the Caribbean and Brazil.

2. African Religions

C. Creolization and Caribbean Identity

1. Language

2. Music

IV. Geopolitical Framework: Colonialism, Neocolonialism, and Independence -Monroe Doctrine: a proclamation issued by U.S. President James Monroe in 1823 that the United States would not tolerate European military action in the Western Hemisphere. Focused on the Caribbean as a strategic area, the doctrine was repeatedly invoked to justify U.S.

political and military intervention in the region.

-neocolonialism: economic and political strategies by which powerful states indirectly (and sometimes directly) extend their influence over other, weaker states.

A. Life in the "American Backyard"

1. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico

2. Cuba and Regional Politics

B. Independence and Integration

1. Independence Movements

2. Regional Integration

-Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM): a regional trade organization established in 1972 that includes former English colonies as its members.

V. Economic and Social Development: From Cane Fields to Cruise Ships A. From Fields to Factories and Resorts

1. Sugar

2. The Banana Wars

3. Assembly-plant Industrialization

-free trade zones (FTZs): a duty-free and tax-exempt industrial park created to attract foreign corporations and create industrial jobs.

4. Offshore Banking and On-Line Gambling

-offshore banking: islands or microstates that offer financial services that are typically confidential and tax-exempt. As part of a global financial system, offshore banks have developed a unique niche, offering their services to individual and corporate clients for set fees. The Bahamas and Cayman Islands are leaders in this sector.

5. Tourism

-capital leakage: the gap between the gross receipts an industry (such as tourism) brings into a developing area and the amount of capital retained.

B. Social Development

1. Education

-brain drain: migration of the best-educated people from developing countries to developed nations where economic opportunities are greater.

2. Status of Women

3. Labor-Related Migration

-remittances: monies sent by immigrants working abroad to family members and communities in countries of origin. For many countries in the developing world, remittances often amount to billions of dollars each year. For small countries, remittances can equal 5-10 percent of a country's gross domestic product.