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Table of ContentsNorth America Middle America South America
North America
Major Geographic Qualities1. Anglo-American label 2. English language 3. Christian faiths 4. European norms in government, architecture, diet, arts 5. highly urbanized 6. mobile populations 7. high incomes 8. manufacturing output 9. federal states with plural societies
Physical Characteristics
1. Arctic Coastal Plain: In northern Alaska, this is a complex landscape of lakes, streams and wetlands scattered across low relief tundra that is underlain by permafrost, an eco-region that is an important breeding ground for a great deal of wildlife.
2. Canadian Shield: North America contains some of the oldest rocks on Earth. Its geologic structure is built around a stable platform of Precambrian rock called the Canadian (Laurentian) Shield. This region was once an area of high mountains. Centuries of erosion, or gradual wearing away, reduced the area to low hills and plains rich in minerals.
3. Interior Lowlands: between Rocky Mountains. and Appalachians ... covered by glacial debris laid by melt water and wind of the Pleistocene glaciation
4. Piedmont: A plateau region located in eastern US between the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the main Appalachian Mountains, stretching from New Jersey in the north to central Alabama in the south. The Piedmont is a physiographic region of the larger Appalachian region. It consists of the Piedmont Upland and Piedmont Lowlands sections. It consists of the remnant of several ancient mountain chains that have since been eroded away and has historically been a farming area although only moderately fertile.
5. Appalachian Highlands: North America’s older mountain ranges, including the Appalachians, rise near the east coast. These areas have been mined for rich deposits of coal and other minerals for hundreds of years.
6. Gulf Atlantic Coastal Plain: Made up of two sub regions, the Atlantic Plain and the Gulf Plain. Extends along the east and southeast coasts of the US from east Long Island to the Rio Grande. Cape Cod and the islands off southeast Massachusetts are part of this region. Although narrow in the north, the Atlantic Coastal Plain widens in the south, merging with the Gulf Coastal Plain in Florida. The Atlantic and Gulf coasts are essentially coastlines of submergence, with numerous estuaries, embayments, islands, sand spits and barrier beaches backed by lagoons. The northeast coast has many natural harbors but south of the North Carolina coast there are few large bays. A principal feature of the lagoon-lined Gulf Coast is the great delta of the Mississippi River.
7. Interior Highlands: The Ozark Highlands extend across southern Missouri and northern Arkansas and into eastern Kansas. Thick with forests, the region includes mountains that rise more than 2,000 feet. The highest are the Boston Mountains in Arkansas. Important industries in the region include forestry, agriculture and mining.
8. Great Plains: between Rocky Mountains. and Appalachians ... extensive sedimentary surface rising westward toward the Rockies
9. Rocky Mountains: Geologically young and complex system extends into northwest US from Canada and runs south into New Mexico. There are numerous high peaks in the Rockies; the highest is Mt. Elbert (14,433 ft). The Rocky Mountains are divided into four sections: Northern Rockies, Middle Rockies, Wyoming (Great Divide) Basin and Southern Rockies. Along the crest of the Rockies is the Continental Divide, separating Atlantic-bound drainage from that heading for the Pacific Ocean.
10. Intermontane Basins and Plateaus: Called intermontane due to position between the Rockies to the east and the Pacific coast mountain system in the west. Contains 3 physiographic provinces: a. Colorado plateau in the north forms the watershed of the Colombia River. b. Colorado plateau in the south has thick sediments and the Grand Canyon.
c. Central
Basin-and-Range country of Nevada and Utah (Great Basin)
contains several extinct lakes from the glacial period and the Great Salt
Lake.
11. Pacific Mountains and Valleys: The coast mountain belt from the Alaskan Peninsula to Southern California is dominated by a row of high mountain ranges originating from the contact of North American and Pacific Plates. The major components include California’s Sierra Nevada, Cascades of Oregon and Washington, and the chain of highland massifs lining the British Columbia and southern Alaska coasts. The valleys in this area that contain dense populations are the San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley (central), the Cowlitz-Puget Sound and the Fraser Valley.
12. Canada: second-largest country in the world (after Russia), area of nearly 10 million sq. km makes it slightly larger than the US, terrain mostly plains with mountains in the west and lowlands in the east, climate varies from temperate in the south, along the US-Canadian border, to subarctic in the north, permafrost in north restricts development
13. United States: third-largest country in the world, over 9.6 million sq. km of area, climate ranges from tropical to arctic but most of the US lies in the temperate zone, great variability in terrain and natural hazards, broad central plains with hills and low mountains in east
Cultural Characteristics1. Indigenous cultures shaped, and were shaped by, the geography of North America. The first North Americans are believed to have migrated from Siberia, in northeast Asia, by crossing a land bridge over the Bering Strait. These populations fanned out southward, to present-day Florida, California, Mexico and Central America. The legacy of European colonization was devastating for Native Americans.
2. Leading North American civilizations included the Iroquois, native to southeastern Canada and the northeastern United States.
3. Many of these early North American cultures were scientifically and agriculturally advanced. Cultures throughout southern North America harvested corn, squash, and beans in regular cycles. This sort of agriculture allowed major civilizations to develop. People were no longer bound to produce food and shelter for their families — some people could work in the food and construction industries while others became engineers, artists, and political leaders.
4. The vastness of the northern part of the continent encouraged other indigenous communities to live nomadic lifestyles. These cultures did not establish urban areas or agricultural centers. Instead, they followed favorable weather patterns, natural agricultural cycles, and animal migrations. The Plains Indians, for example, followed the seasonal grazing and migration of the American bison.
5. The environment also impacted the traditional beliefs and social structure of North American indigenous communities. For instance, the Inuit, native to the Arctic, were deeply influenced by the aurora borealis, or Northern Lights. They believed the amazing light displays were images of their family and friends in the afterlife, the souls of animals and spirits, and visual guides for hunting. Inuit also believed that all things have souls, and that spirits existed to protect those souls. By respecting the ecosystem (the living and nonliving things in an environment), Inuit communities aimed to maintain a balanced existence.
6. Northern Frontier: most of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Newfoundland; Yukon Territory, Nunavut Territory, Northwest Territory, Alaska ... Covers 90% of Canada and all of Alaska consisting of very harsh weather. Contains one of the Earth’s storehouses of mineral and energy resources because of the Canadian Shield covering ⅔ of the eastern part.
7. French Canada: southern Quebec and northern New Brunswick ... Narrow rectangular farms, long lots, laid out perpendicular to the St. Lawrence allowing each farm access to transportation.
8. Maritime Northeast: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, eastern Newfoundland ... Development has centered on fishing and recreation tourism in the winter.
9. Core: centered around major urban areas: southeast Ontario
(Toronto), southern Michigan (Detroit), southeastern Wisconsin (Milwaukee),
Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Washington DC, northern
Virginia, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts ...
Leader during the century between the Civil War and the close of the
industrial age. Still the geographic heart in which manufacturing is
important.
10. South: Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Tennessee, Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, southern Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky ... Many problems surrounded the South after the Civil War but the growth of beef, soybeans, poultry and lumber has helped the growth of this region. There are still poverty and economic problems. One positive aspect is many are retiring to areas of the South.
11. Continental Interior: eastern Colorado, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, eastern Wyoming, eastern Montana, southeastern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, South Dakota, North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, most of Wisconsin, and northern Michigan ... Agriculture is predominant, especially wheat and corn.
12. Southwest: Arizona, New Mexico, Texas ... A bicultural regional complex sometimes referred to as tri-cultural to include not only Anglo Americans and Hispanic Americans, but also Native Americans. Rapid development is based on a three prong foundation: (a) availability of electricity (b) sufficient water for large numbers in dry environment (c) autos for people to spread out further. The Dallas/Ft Worth - Houston - San Antonio triangle has become one of the most productive post-industrial complexes, specializing in business information, health care services and high tech manufacturing.
13. Western Frontier: Nevada, Utah, Idaho, eastern Oregon and Washington, western Montana, western Colorado, western Wyoming, southeastern British Columbia, and southwestern Alberta ... Stretches east-west between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada Cascades, the north-south reaches from Grand Canyon country to the Canadian Rockies. The Las Vegas Valley is the fastest growing area in the western frontier due to advances in technology and communication.
14. Pacific Hinge: California, western Oregon and Washington, and southwestern British Columbia ... consists of the Pacific coastlands of the US and Canada. It has good climate and weather. The land is very productive in California’s Central Valley. Accommodations for large population and economic growth came after the WWII era. Environmental hazards such as droughts, flooding, mudslides, brushfire and earthquakes, occur in this area.
Demographic Characteristics1. European expansion: Beginning with the Vikings’ brief stint in Newfoundland circa 1000 CE and continuing through England’s colonization of the Atlantic coast in the 17th century, which laid the foundation for the US, European expansion spanned an entire millennium and involved a wide array of European powers, all of which contributed to the demographic history of North America. Three settlement stages for Europeans: a. Stage 1 (1600 - 1750): European colonial footholds on East Coast (French, English, Dutch, Spanish, enslaved Africans) b. Stage 2 (1750 - 1850): Infilling better eastern farmland, including Upper Ohio and Tennessee Valleys, Interior Lowlands, Midwest, Interior South; Canadian settlement slower c. Stage 3 (1850 - 1910): Westward movement (immigrants and American-born Europeans) heading for gold rushes and other opportunities
2. Canada's population: relatively low compared to size, of European stock with
the largest group (40%) of British Isles origin and the next largest (27%)
French, two
3. US population: mostly white with a 12.4% black population, over 80% Christian (56% Protestant, 28% Roman Catholic), principal language is English but a sizable minority speaks Spanish. The greatest population density in the US is along the Atlantic coast, especially toward the north. The largest settlement agglomeration is known as the Megalopolis, which reaches from Washington to Boston. The US population is still being shaped by the wide spectrum of immigrant groups. Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, Pacific Islanders, American Indians, and Eskimos or Aleuts make up about 27% of all Americans. The number of immigrants living in the US has almost tripled since 1970. Most of the Hispanic population is located around New York.
Economic Characteristics1. wealth of industrial, fuel and agricultural resources
2. postindustrial a. 300 days of sunshine per year b. affordable housing c. low risk business environment i. tax breaks ii. cooperative state and local governments iii. lenders iv. businesses d. economic enterprises e. government f. social-services complexes g. military
3. Canada: a market-oriented economic system ... largely rural prior to WWII but growth in manufacturing, mining and service sectors has transformed the nation into one that is primarily industrial and urban ... most electric power is hydroelectric with significant amounts produced by fossil fuels and nuclear energy ... main exports include motor vehicles and parts, wood and paper products, fossil fuels and machinery ... main imports are machinery and equipment, crude oil, chemicals, motor vehicles and parts and durable consumer goods ... US is major trading partner due in part to NAFTA which also includes Mexico ... has a well-developed infrastructure that includes railways, highways, waterways, pipelines for oil and natural gas, airports and heliports
4. US: most powerful, diverse and technologically advanced economy in the world ... market-oriented economy in which private individuals and business firms make most of the decisions ... government buys needed goods and services predominantly in the private marketplace ... electricity production is from a variety of sources but over 60% is from fossil fuels and less than 20% from nuclear power ... exports capital goods, automobiles, industrial supplies and raw materials, consumer goods and agricultural products ... imports crude oil and refined petroleum products, machinery, automobiles, consumer goods and industrial raw materials ... over 60% of trade is with Canada, Western Europe, Japan and Mexico ... has a well-developed infrastructure that includes railways, highways, navigable waterways, the Great Lakes, numerous ports and harbors, airports and heliports
Political Characteristics1. Cooperation and conflict have dramatically affected the relationships between North American countries. The US and Canada have the longest non-militarized border in the world, for instance. This peaceful border reflects a stable, cooperative relationship between the two countries. North America’s history is dotted with conflict, however. The region has become a hotspot for foreign policy and financial assistance. Over the years, the US, for instance, has hoped to protect its economic and political interests by backing various military governments and guerrilla groups.
2. North America’s political geography is deeply influenced by economic and demographic trends. Immigration is perhaps the most sensitive aspect. Most immigration is fueled by poverty.
3. National security at the international, regional and domestic level will continue to be an important issue. Internationally, the developed countries of North America, especially the US, continue to negotiate their diplomatic presence in the world while protecting themselves from terrorist attacks at home.
4. One of the most important aspects of North America’s political and financial future rests largely on its efforts to minimize the effects of climate change.
5. North America a. Bermuda (UK) b. Canada c. Greenland (or Kalaallit Nunaat, Denmark)
Optional ResourcesYou may note that for some countries on the Americas, Africa, Europe and Russia, and Asia and the Pacific pages I have provided a link to one or more of that county’s EarthCams. The cameras are live so what you see depends on when you watch it. They also have sound. A few of the views have a brief commercial at the beginning and occasionally a few may be off-line. Just try the latter at a later time. You can click on the Hall of Fame link at the top of each video and see scenes from the past few days. If you are interested in watching cams I haven't listed on these pages, feel free to check out the EarthCam Network. Beware: Watching live EarthCam can be hypnotic! Political Resources on the Net Google's Arts & Culture collection virtual world museum tours
Canada | Take a trip to Canada and explore the second-largest national land area in the world, encompassing the Canadian Rockies of British Columbia and Alberta, across the rolling grain fields of Saskatchewan and Manitoba, to the farms and towns of the maritime provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland-Labrador. | Take a moment and view sites in Canada from outer space. | Sacred Sites of Canada | Niagara Falls Canada Cam | The Man Who Went to War With Canada Take a road trip through Prince Edward Island, Canada, and let the highways take you around this often forgotten corner of Canada. This Atlantic coast community is steep in tradition and offers a look at what old maritime life was once like. | Take a look at life in Canada’s remote and pristine Northwest Territories, home to Indigenous peoples of many cultures and languages. | A Journey through Black Nova Scotia | Canada’s Gaspé Peninsula feels like the edge of the world. Toronto, Canada is the largest Canadian city and the fifth largest city in North America. Toronto is heralded as one of the most multicultural cities in the world and is ranked as the safest large metropolitan area in North America. Over 140 languages and dialects are spoken here, and just over 30% of Toronto residents speak a language other than English or French at home. Toronto is not the political capital of Canada but it is the cultural, entertainment and financial capital of the nation. It is located in Southern Ontario on the northwestern shore of Lake Ontario. A relatively modern city, Toronto's history dates back to the late 18th century, when its land was first purchased by the British monarchy from the Mississaugas. Walking on the streets of Toronto it is almost impossible to believe that there is a second city – PATH – hidden underground. According to Guinness World Records, PATH is the world’s largest underground shopping complex with 17 miles of shopping arcades. It has 4 million square feet of retail space. The 1,200 shops and services found in PATH employ about 5,000 people. Once a year, businesses in PATH host the world's largest underground sidewalk sale. | Toronto Cam
Greenland is an autonomous country within the Danish Realm located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for more than a millennium. Greenland has the world's largest island, the world’s lowest population density and one of the smallest capitals in the world (Nuuk 5:51). Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the only permanent ice sheet (Check out the links at the bottom.) outside of Antarctica (10% of the world's total fresh water reserves). | Petermann Glacier (If you get a subscription screen, just scroll down below it.) | the Arctic Umiaq Line ferry | Greenland is melting away. | Greenland Melting | Greenland’s Disappearing Glaciers—A Tale of Fire and Ice | Greenland Institute of Natural Resources | Greenland: Land of Ice and Ghosts (3:14): amateur video but interesting | Ice News | …and just for fun: Greenland Board Game | Photographing One of the Most Remote Places on Earth About the United States | US National Archives | US Historical Monuments and Landmarks | Nature’s Highlights in the US | US National Park Service | The ONE Thing You Must Do In Each US State | 10 Iconic US Attractions | Most Beautiful Places in America | US National Arboretum | Top 10 Most Interesting States | Biggest and Best Places to Visit in the South | Roadside America | Fort Tilden | USS Recruit | A 600-mile walk to a singing river | History of US Interventions in Latin America | US Place Names You’ve Been Pronouncing Wrong | This Is the Oldest City in the US … and It’s Absolutely Beautiful | A Virtual Road Trip along Route 66 Bat Mania (2:05): Tens of thousands of people from across the country gather in Austin, Texas for a truly amazing sight: Millions of bats taking flight each night. Called by some, "bat-nado," it has become Austin's top attraction in summer and fall months. | Why Do Americans and Brits Drive on Different Sides of the Road? | virtual San Diego Zoo | virtual Yellowstone National Park | The Island that Speaks Elizabethan English | When the Bronx Was a Forest: Stroll through the Centuries | The Ghost Wolves of Galveston Island | Six Days Afloat in the Everglades | The Elusive Future of San Francisco’s Fog | Y’all: the Most Inclusive of All Pronouns | The Grand Canyon, a Cathedral to Time, Is Losing Its River Los Angeles (Hollywood Boulevard) Cam | UC Davis falcons Cam | New London CT Cam | Washington DC Cam | Florida eagles Cam | Florida manatees Cam | Illinois bison Cam | Chicago IL Cam | Notre Dame Cam | New Orleans (Bourbon Street) Cam | Baltimore Harbor Cam | Baltimore jellyfish Cam | Baltimore Aquarium Cam | Boston MA Cam | Essex MA osprey Cam | Minnesota falcons Cam | St Paul MN Cam | Omaha NE falcons Cam | New York Harbor Cam | New York (Fifth Avenue) Cam | NC wildlife Cam | San Antonio TX Cam | Jackson Hole WY Cam | The Hawaiians Who Want Their Nation Back US | Census tracks 20 years of sweeping change | How we see immigration and why we're wrong | Official American | Compare your income | If you thought income inequality was bad, get a load of wealth inequality. | What's next for the Supreme Court? | A Closer Look at What the US Lets You See of Its War Court at Guantánamo Bay | Serial podcast provides a history of Guantánamo told by people who lived through key moments in Guantánamo’s evolution, who know things the rest of us don’t about what it’s like to be caught inside an improvised justice system. Comparing Countries
Middle America (Central America and the Caribbean Basin)
Major Geographic Qualities1. Mexico, Central America, Caribbean Islands 2. physically and politically fragmented 3. culturally diverse 4. endemic poverty
Physical Characteristics1. Central America is a land bridge with a chain of rugged mountains extending through the center. These towering mountains rise as high as 14,000 feet, with the highest in Guatemala. On each side of these highlands exist lowlands along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts (with the exceptions of El Salvador, which does not border the Atlantic, and Belize, which does not border the Pacific). The lowlands are generally hot, humid and often plagued by disease, while the highlands are cooler and drier. Why Central American Volcanoes Are Ideal for Studying Earth’s Evolution 2. Situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the Caribbean Basin region is comprised of more than 700 islands, islets, reefs and cays. (See map thumbnail above for this discussion.) These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean islands, consisting of the Greater Antilles on the north and the Lesser Antilles on the south and east (including the Leeward Antilles), are part of the somewhat larger West Indies grouping, which also includes the Lucayan Archipelago (comprising The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands) north of the Greater Antilles and Caribbean Sea. In a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are also sometimes included. The Caribbean is divided into two main subdivisions: the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola [Haiti and the Dominican Republic] and Puerto Rico) and the Lesser Antilles. Within the Lesser Antilles, there are three sub-groupings: the Leeward Islands, the Windward Islands and the Leeward Antilles. Early sailing ships crossing the Atlantic took advantage of the trade winds and ocean currents. These often delivered them to the edge of the Caribbean Sea near Dominica. The Windward (direction upwind from the point of reference) Islands were so named because they were more windward at this location than the Leeward (direction downwind or downward from the point of reference) Islands.
3. natural hazards: earthquakes, volcanoes, hurricanes, droughts, flooding, mud slides
Cultural Characteristics1. Two of the most important civilizations to have flourished were the Mayan and Aztec Empires. Both possessed complex societies and high levels of technology. The Mayan Empire first rose more than 3,000 years ago and occupied the low-lying tropical plains of what is now Honduras, Guatemala, Belize and southern Mexico. The Aztec Empire, which came much later, is thought to have originated in the early 14th century. This empire stretched from Honduras to the highland areas of central Mexico, its core being in the great city of Tenochtitlan in the Valley of Mexico, the area that is today Mexico City. The Aztec civilization lasted approximately 100 years until Hernán Cortés, the Spanish Conquistadors and an epidemic of smallpox, effectively destroyed the Aztec Empire in the 1520s. a. Maya cultural hearth i. classical period 200-900 CE ii. Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, Yucatan peninsula iii. theocratic structure b. Aztec cultural hearth i. 1300 CE ii. Valley of Mexico iii. Tenochtitlan (>100,000 people)
2. Multiple influences have overprinted the indigenous cultures. Four main colonial influences: a. Spanish: dominant on the inland portions of the mainland and large islands b. British: coastal areas of the mainland and islands c. French: islands d. Dutch: islands
3. legacy of colonialism a. land appropriation i. Land was appropriated for colonial commercial interests, resulting in a very unequal distribution of land ownership and income. ii. Lands devoted to food crops for local consumption were converted to cash crops for export. b. forced urbanization: relocation of the population to nucleated towns and villages, favored control and conversion to Catholicism c. land alienation: characterized by famine (loss of 90% of population), poverty, migration, little agricultural diversity i. implementation of the encomienda: replicate of the European feudal system that mandated the payment of tributes to the Crown, forced indigenous groups into the cash economy ii. formation of large haciendas (estates): Crown rewarded conquistadores with huge land grants (including much land already used by the indigenous peoples) with natives tied to land, most provided protection and the teachings of Christianity … system ensured the presence of a large labor force that essentially was a slave labor force, with workers deriving little benefit from their labors beyond the ability to pay the encomienda … not efficient but brought social prestige to land holders iii. ejidos system: hacienda system was broken up and most hacienda-land was given back to the people, often in the form of an ejidos system (land system in which the community owns the land but individuals can gain profit from it by sharing resources) … system has created its own set of problems and many communally-owned lands are being transferred to private owners
d. Presence of the Catholic Church is felt virtually everywhere in Latin America today. In most of these countries, the Catholic population ranges from 80 to 90%. Forcing the indigenous population to accept Catholicism was not an easy task for the Spaniards. One thing that made conversion easier was that Catholicism has many saints and the indigenous religions have many gods. For many indigenous peoples, Catholicism has been mixed with indigenous religions to form a combination of the two (religious syncretism). Cuba’s massive Carnival celebrations have been held in some form or another since the 17th century. As a series of winter events tied to the Catholic Church’s calendar, Carnival was largely reserved for Cubans of mostly Spanish ancestry, while its summer counterpart, the Mamarrachos, allowed laborers and the lower classes (mostly enslaved Africans and their descendants) a period of riotous release after the sugar cane harvest. Many other Carnivals across the Caribbean are still observed in February, before Lent, but Cuba’s Carnival has evolved into an exuberant summer event that is celebrated across the country. The most famous parties, held in Havana in August and in Santiago de Cuba at the end of July, have preserved the vibrant spirit and Afro-Caribbean influences of the original Mamarrachos. Spangled and feathered groups of dancers called comparsas perform in the streets between giant effigies of religious figures and celebrities, decorated floats and conga performers. The mainstreaming of festivals that originated from marginalized communities hasn’t been entirely seamless, with periodic attempts by conservative Cubans to sanitize them, but the omnipresent rhythm of the Carnival drums is a permanent reminder of their roots in resilience, triumph and pure joy.
e. Mainland and Rimland characteristics of Middle America based on colonial-era economic activities … Both the hacienda and the plantation structures of agriculture altered the ethnic makeup of their respective regions.
i. mainland: the interior of Central America and Mexico … Euro-Indian influence, mestizo, greater isolation from European activity, mountains, altitudinal zonation climate (natural layering of ecosystems that occurs at distinct altitudes due to varying environmental conditions), hacienda landholding pattern ii. rimland: Caribbean islands and the Caribbean coastal areas of Central America … Euro-African influence, mulatto, greater accessibility to European ships, islands, tropical climate, plantation landholding pattern … For example, sugar production had large economies of scale (large plantations with hundreds of slaves, large capital requirements) and resulted in high concentration of wealth and land ownership.
4. Caribbean Indians: A number of indigenous groups inhabited the Antilles before the arrival of Europeans, including the Arawaks, Caribs and the Tainos (the latter thought to have been descended from the Arawak tribe). Beginning with the Columbus expedition of 1492, European presence has had a dramatic effect on the demographic character of the Caribbean. Spanish brutality, enslavement, warfare and disease all contributed to the rapid decline of the indigenous Amerindian population. This left a critical labor shortage for the fledging sugarcane industry, thus prompting Europeans to actively seek and obtain slaves and indentured labor from Africa and Asia respectively. No less than five million Africans were brought to the Caribbean alone.
5. African Slave Trade:
African slaves primarily came from
West Africa where they were forcibly removed from their native lands and
taken to the Americas by
European slave traders. Tribal groups were rarely, if ever, left intact upon
reaching their new home. Instead they were intentionally mixed to dilute ethnic
identities. As a result, intact transfer of religion and languages into the
Caribbean did not occur, which consequently provided conditions for new dialects
and cultures to arise.
Demographic Characteristics1. social stratification a. development of a socially stratified society along racial lines b. miscegenation: mixed race resulting between Caucasians and the indigenous population … began very early on during the colonial period since early migrations from Europe were primarily male c. in most cases continued into contemporary times … one of the overriding realities of Latin America … one of the region's greatest problems
2. diversity: European and African influence, less Latin than South America, importance of pre-Columbian and African cultures, many European dominions (English, French, Dutch), sizeable Asian minorities in some countries … Caribbean changes: entirely Amerindian, dominated by European colonizers, an African majority population … Central America/Mexico changes: mixing of European culture with Amerindian culture to form various types of mestizo (people of mixed ethnicity) groups with Hispanic, Latino or Chicano identities
3. Euro-Indian vs. Euro-African: mestizos (métis) (European / Indian), mulattos (European / Black) … tend to follow a mainland-rimland pattern
4. Middle America’s climates and landscapes have a large impact on settlement patterns in the region. (In Latin America as a whole, most of the population lives on only one-third of the land.) a. Mexico: largest concentrations in Mexico City area, with sizeable indigenous concentrations in southern Mexico b. Central America: most in middle altitudes and along Pacific coast … Atlantic coast less settled due to lowlands, tropical rainforest, infertile soils, tropical storms
c. Caribbean: most concentrated populations generally along coasts …
because of these countries’ small sizes, tend to have high population densities
5. Middle America has faced problems in past decades with
soaring population growth and economies and infrastructures that
struggled to keep up with the rising population. However, in recent years,
population growth rates have dropped dramatically. Yet aggregate numbers
do not reflect the variation in birthrates between various countries. The most
extreme variation can be found in Cuba and Guatemala which respectively have the
lowest (1.47) and highest (3.98) fertility rates in Middle America. Cuba faces a
rapidly aging population, while Guatemala has seen an increase in younger
working-age adults. Look at the regional
population pyramids (above right). Population pyramids are used by
demographers as a tool for understanding the make-up of a given population. They
are graphs that show the age-sex distributions of different populations. Sex is
shown on the left/right sides, age on the y-axis, and the percentage of
population on the x-axis. Each grouping (ex: males aged 0-4) is called a cohort.
A population pyramid does not tell you the actual population in numbers. Rather,
it displays percentages and shows what portion of a population fall into each
cohort. In general, the more rectangular the graph is shaped, the slower a
population is growing (a more uniform population size across age groups with older
generations being replaced by new generations of approximately the same size).
The more a graph looks like a pyramid, the faster that population is growing
(older generations are producing larger new generations).
6. Internal migration (especially rural-to-urban) and regional migration (predominately for economic reasons) are increasing.
7. Poverty: Share of the region's population in extreme poverty is falling. Middle class is growing. Still an awful lot of people in extreme poverty … largest single group of people in the region is the “vulnerable” and at risk of slipping back into poverty if their fortunes change. Income disparities have improved but remain high. (All countries in Latin America are more unequal than Turkey, the most unequal OECD country from outside the region.) Indigenous communities are particularly vulnerable to poverty. Natural disasters have aggravated poverty in the region.
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1. population concentrated along periphery
2. cultural pluralism
3. minimal regional economic interaction
1. South America can be divided into three physical regions: mountains and highlands, river basins, and coastal plains. Mountains and coastal plains generally run in a north-south direction, while highlands and river basins generally run in an east-west direction.
a. mountains and highlands: primary mountain system situated on the far western edge of the continent, the Andes, is also the world’s longest (5,500 miles) … highest peak (22,841 feet), Aconcagua, is tallest mountain outside Asia … altiplano of Peru and Bolivia … Patagonia region of Argentina and Chile consists of lower-elevation plateaus and rugged glaciers … Brazilian Highlands, south of the Amazon River in Brazil, are made up of low mountains and plateaus … heavily forested plateau of the Guiana Highlands located between the Amazon and Orinoco Rivers
b. river basins:
Amazon basin (2.7 million square miles) in the central north fed by
tributaries from the
glaciers of the Andes (The glaciers are melting so quickly, it's hard to
find a good current photo.) and defined by
dense, tropical
rain forest (Every second, the
Amazon River empties 7,381,000 cubic feet of freshwater into the Atlantic
Ocean.) …
Paraguay/Paraná basin covers over 1 million square miles and is made up of
vast grasslands, supplies water to the Pampas (plains biome, most important
grazing and cropland areas on the continent) of South America, includes
Iguazu Falls (a massive series of waterfalls) …
Orinoco basin a giant arc north of Amazon for more than 1,700 miles and
covers an
area of about 366,000 square miles, the
Llanos (a vast savanna or grassland region) is primary biome of the Orinoco
River basin
c. coastal plains: areas of low, flat land next to a seacoast … found on the northeastern Atlantic coast of Brazil and the western Pacific coast of Peru and Chile … both extremely dry, western coastal plain includes Atacama Desert (driest region in the world with average rainfall of 0.04 inches a year, some parts have never had rain in recorded history), a rich source of copper
d. The Darién
Gap: a sliver of jungle that is the only land route between Central
America and South America, a roadless and lawless crossing on the border
between
Colombia and Panama consisting of more than sixty miles of dense rain forest,
steep mountains and vast swamps. Thick, hot and prone to intense rain and
landslides, sliced by raging rivers and steep mountains, the Darién jungle has
acted as a vast natural barrier between North and South America for generations.
Guerrillas and other armed groups have long used the dense forest for cover and
drug smuggling, sometimes attacking those who dare to pass. Diseases like
malaria and dengue are common. Deep in the jungle, travelers are faced with high
heat and humidity, robbery, rape, human trafficking, wild animals, insects and
the absolute lack of safe drinking water.
2. South America’s extreme geographic variation contributes to the continent’s large number of biomes (a community of animals and plants that spreads over an area with a relatively uniform climate). With an unparalleled number of plant and animal species, South America’s rich biodiversity is unique among the world’s continents.
1. Of the civilizations of South America, one of the most important was that of the Incan Empire. The empire, which originated around the 13th century and lasted nearly 350 years, occupied the highland areas of Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia. The ancient Incan language of Quechua is still in use in parts of South America today. Agriculture was extremely important to the native peoples of the region. Their advancements in farming and crop domestication, which were quickly brought back to the old world by European explorers, ultimately helped transform modern Europe.
a. cultural hearth: intermontane basin around Cuzco (1200-1535 CE)
b. altiplano (high plain) key to settlement patterns
c. 12 million population at high point
d. impressive transportation networks and integration efforts: built an expansive network of roads including forts, inns, food storage facilities, signal towers
2. There are other indigenous groups in South America: Aymara, Guna, Huaorani, Guaraní, Mapuche, Quechuas and many others.
3. The importation of African slaves represented a major shift in the cultural landscape of South America. Most slaves were brought to Brazil. Their unique cultural practices were integrated with indigenous Indian beliefs as well as European rituals.
4. South America’s cultural spheres:
a. tropical plantation
i. resembles Middle America rimland
ii. location, soil, climate favor plantation crops, especially sugar
iii. initially relied on African slave labor
b. European commercial
i. most “Latin” part of South America
ii. includes the Pampas (temperate grasslands)
iii. economically most advanced
iv. excellent transportation networks and quality of life
c. rural Amerindian
i. correlates with former Inca Empire
ii. feudal socioeconomic structure persists
iii. includes some of the poorest areas
iv. subsistence agriculture must contend with difficult environmental challenges
d. mixed Mestizo
i. surrounds Amerindian subsistence region
ii. culturally and agriculturally mixed zone
iii. transitional economies
e. undifferentiated / Amazon
i. characteristics difficult to classify
iii. notable features: isolation and lack of change
iv. Amazonia development may prompt significant changes.
5. Columbian Exchange: (Use the thumbnail above right.) contact between the people, plants and animals of the old and new worlds … Both sides were forever changed by the introduction of different species … The Spanish and Portuguese brought a number of crops with them: wheat (flourished in upland areas), grapes and olives (produced commercially in temperate zones of South America), sugar cane (became the dominant cash crop of Caribbean and Brazilian tropical lowlands), coffee (emerged as a large export crop that was cultivated in the upland areas of Central America, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil) … a number of crops were transported to Europe: corn, potatoes, manioc, hot peppers, tomatoes, pineapple, cacao, avocados … diseases: smallpox, measles, whooping cough, bubonic plague, diphtheria, influenza … Europeans brought: horses, pigs, sheep, goats, cattle, rats
1. urbanization: movement to and clustering of people in towns and cities (79%)
a. Latin America is the most urbanized of the world’s developing regions. It is the only developing region with more poor people in cities than in rural areas.
b. Increase based on rate of natural increase and internal migration (consolidation of lands, mechanization of agriculture, more opportunities in cities).
c. A number of cities are classified as megacities (more than 10 million people): Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paolo, Buenos Aires.
d. Urbanization will define the human geography of South America in years to come. Individuals and families face increasing job insecurity, lower wages and a reduction in social services such as electricity and water.
2. diversity: largest number of indigenous groups in the world, largest concentration of Africans outside Africa and of Japanese outside Japan, creole (African descent who emigrated from British and French colonies in the Caribbean), large populations of mixed races: mestizo (European/Indigenous), mulatto (European/African), zambo (African/Indigenous)
3. population distribution: interior sparsely populated, most live in upland coastal regions and in cites … During colonial era, preferential treatment was given to city dwellers, providing a motivation to move to the cities.
4. Latin American City Model (Griffin-Ford Model): Latin American cities are built around a core central business district (CBD). Out of that district comes a commercial spine surrounded by elite housing. These areas are then surrounded by three concentric zones of housing that decrease in quality as one moves away from the CBD. (Look at the illustration of the model by using the thumbnail to the left.)
a. commercial / CBD: focus of employment, entertainment and economic activity … Roads, trains and buses are fairly reliable here.
b. spine: connects CBD to retail areas, a corridor of retail that leads to the mall (formal retail economy, taxed and licensed by the government) on one end and the market (informal economy, traditional area beyond control/taxation of government, unlicensed people sell homemade goods and services, may or may not be legal) on the other
c. industrial park: jobs of those in the middle and lower class, in a convenient place for those who are without transportation
d. zone of maturity: residential area in which a stable population has gradually transformed the district into one that is fully serviced, best residential areas outside the spine area and attracting most of the middle-class
e. zone of in situ accretion: mix of middle and low income housing,
generally thought of as a transitional area (moving either up or down), homes
vary widely in size, type and quality of materials
f. zone of peripheral squatter settlements: new residents / impoverished / unskilled, virtually no infrastructure, many homes are built by residents using whatever materials they can find, older settlements better developed as residents often continually work to improve the areas, contrasts with affluent and comfortable suburbs that ring North American cities
g. disamenity/periferico: relatively unchanging slums (barrios or favelas) that may not be connected to regular city services and are mostly overrun by gangs and drug lords … periferico: on the ends of the disamenity sectors, home to the poorest of the poor of the city, normally overpopulated, not serviced by the city
h. elite residential sector: forms on either side of the spine that contains amenities attractive to wealthy (water and electricity, as well as offices, shops, restaurants, etc), where nearly all of city's professionally built houses are located, large tree lined boulevards
i. gentrification: process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low income renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle to upper-middle class owner-occupied area
j. middle class residential tract: outer semi ring on either side of elite residential sector, middle-class housing clustered around an agglomeration such as a mall
Look at city maps for some South American cities by using the links below (or find others online). See how they fit the Latin American city model. Some of the maps are older, some newer, but they were all drawn long after the cities were founded … Keep in mind that the maps reflect changes made to the cities over the years so none of them will fit the model perfectly.
If your Spanish is rusty, the following might be helpful in reading the maps or go to SpanishDict for translations.
área
area
convento
convent
monumento
monument
avenida
avenue
correo
post office
museo
museum
banco
bank
cuartel
quarter
palacio
palace
biblioteca
library
escuela
school
panteón
mausoleum
calle
street
estación
station
parque
park
capilla
chapel
gubierno
government
parroquia
parish church
casa
house, business
huerta
farmers market
plaza
plaza, square
catedral
cathedral, center
iglesia
church
policía
police
cementerio
cemetery
jardin
garden
puente
bridge
centro
center
mayor
bigger, older
río
river
ciudad vieja
old city
mercado
market
santuario
sanctuary
colegio
college
metropolitano
metropolitan
teatro
theater
comercia
trade
ministerio
ministry
universidad
university
congreso
congress
monasterio
monastery
zona
zone, area
1. An early obstacle to industrial growth in South America was the scarcity of coal. South Americans have gradually developed their natural-gas reserves and hydroelectric plants produce most of the continent's electricity.
2. The bi-polar distribution of land established during three centuries of colonial rule is still, after nearly two centuries of independence, one of the crucial underpinnings of persistent high levels of income inequality in South America.
3. Economic integration has been difficult because individual countries have traditionally been oriented toward Europe and the US, not toward each other. Since World War II, South America has sought greater economic independence. An increasing number of South American industrial centers have developed heavy industries to supplement the light industries on which they had previously concentrated.
4. There have been some efforts at economic integration with varying degrees of success.
a. MERCOSUR
d. NAFTA (expand into South America to include Chile)
1. South America’s political geography is defined by a desire to reduce foreign influence. This desire plus the nationalization or privatization of industry (both with mixed results), as well as the influence of indigenous groups, are the primary forces affecting politics in South America.
2. Mestizos were at the heart of South America’s revolutionary movements but freedom did not end in stability. Colonialism left most of the continent with strong militaries, weak economies and class divisions. South America has suffered violent political transitions, especially during the 1960s and 1970s, decades defined by the Cold War’s global struggle between the US and the Soviets. More recent struggles have generally been between populist-oriented movements and more traditional elites.
3. South America’s physical geography keeps these countries from unifying. It leads to limited interaction resulting in underdevelopment and instability.
4. South America
a. Caribbean North: Republic of Colombia, Territorial Collectivity of Guyane (or French Guiana, France), Cooperative Republic of Guyana, Republic of Suriname, Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
Coastal locations, early European plantation development, forced migration of black laborers
b. Andean West: Plurinational State of Bolivia, Republic of Ecuador, Republic of Peru
Amerindian populations, subsistence agriculture, mountainous environments, poverty
c. Southern Cone: Argentine Republic, Republic of Chile, Easter Island (or Rapa Nui or Isla de Pascua, Chile), Falkland Islands (UK), Republic of Paraguay, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands (UK), Oriental Republic of Uruguay
Heart of European commercial culture
d. Federative Republic of Brazil
Half of continent’s land and people, federal republic, ethnic diversity, Portuguese, Catholic, substantial mineral resources
Political Resources on the Net
Google's Arts & Culture collection virtual world museum tours
Latin American Revolutions: Crash Course (13:42)
Among the many major geophysical regions in Latin America, the Andes are one of the more dominant landforms. Beginning in northwestern Venezuela and ending in Tierra del Fuego, the Andes are relatively young mountains that extend nearly 5,000 miles. Aconcagua in Argentina, at 23,000 feet in altitude, is considered the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere. While the physical geography is obviously quite different from other areas in Latin America, the culture of the Andes is equally distinctive.
Argentina | Take a tour of Argentina and learn about Argentine culture through video! Learn about the gaucho, the tango and many more cultural icons of Argentina through sound, music and pictures! Take a virtual tour through Buenos Aires, the pampas and Patagonia, and see first-hand the great waterfall at Iguazú.
Approximately 0.5 to 1 million gallons per second of water flow down Iguazú Falls, Argentina and Brazil depending on the season. The waterfalls are unbelievably cool! A true endless flow of water! The entire canyon is covered with a thin mist created by the falling water.
Down the rabbit hole | Argentina’s ancient mummy children (4:09) | A graphic past, emblazoned on walls | Meet Argentina’s frozen mummies. | Mysterious Pattern in a Cave Is Oldest Rock Art Found in Patagonia
Buenos Aires, Argentina. Part I | Buenos Aires, Argentina. Part II: The first tour includes Recoleta Cemetery, the main street with great lights, the palace of the Argentine National Congress and, of course, the most recognizable slum of Buenos Aires with the romantic name Villa 31. The second tour includes panoramas of the town of La Plata in the Province of Buenos Aires.
Bolivia | The western part of landlocked Bolivia (If you don’t read Spanish, use Chrome and tell Google to translate.), enclosed by two chains of the Andes, is a great plateau — the Altiplano, with an average altitude of 12,000 feet. Almost half the population lives on the plateau, which contains Oruro, Potosí and La Paz. At an altitude of 11,910 feet, La Paz is the highest administrative capital city in the world. The Oriente (final home of Che Guevara), a lowland region ranging from rain forests to grasslands, comprises the northern and eastern two-thirds of the country. Lake Titicaca, at an altitude of 12,507 feet, is the highest commercially navigable body of water in the world. Culturally, more than 60% of Bolivia's citizens are Indian, predominantly Quechua and Aymara. | Culture | Sacred Sites of Bolivia | Bolivia ended its drug war by kicking out the DEA and legalizing coca | Bolivia’s Results in Economic Field | President Evo Morales (Bolivia’s first Indian president) | Bolivia Bella (The entire site is worth exploring. Use the links to the left of the page.)
Brazil | Take a virtual trip to Brazil and see what life is like in South America’s largest country. | The road transforming the Amazon | Development: Brazil | Snake Island: Ilha da Queimada Grande | Moving to the City | The Lost City of Z: A quest to uncover the secrets of the Amazon | Under the Jungle | Brazil (Rio de Janeiro) Cam | Vivid Street Scenes from Salvador, Brazil | A visual story on how human development is wreaking havoc on the Amazon rainforest and on Earth’s climate | The War for the Amazon Rainforest | One Man Dies, and an Entire Uncontacted Tribe Vanishes in Brazil | This radio program (NTS) offers an hour of the classic sounds of Brazil. | What if You Were Stranded on Snake Island? (8:27) | A severe drought pushes an imperiled Amazon to the brink. | Where the Flavors of the Amazon Rainforest Delight
Chile | Sacred Sites of Chile | South America’s Powerful Women Are Embattled. Is Gender a Factor? | Patagonia’s ice-carved waterways | Chile volcano erupts with ash and lightning | Living with the World's Oldest Mummies
Easter Island, Chile is often called the most remote inhabited piece of land in the world. Too, this small island of 102 square miles holds the greatest number of unsolved mysteries. There is much more to this island than meets the eye. There are phenomena, which are absolutely atypical not only of this region but also of the natives. The Rapa Nui, Easter Island's native population of 4,000 people, have a rich and unique mythology. Furthermore, this is the only island in the entire Polynesian region that developed a written language. And of course, there is the main attraction of Easter Island: the famous moai statues. These monoliths are made of solidified volcanic ash. They are up to 66 feet tall, and each of them weights over 20 tons. There are a total of 997 moai statues on the island. On the slopes of Rano Raraku volcano the statues give the most authentic impression. Giant figures are in different stages of completeness: they are shoulder deep in the ground or even merged with the walls of the dead volcano. Complete or not, the elongated heads don't look human and researchers remain unable to identify their origin. There is another unsolved question: Why did one of the emperors of the ancient Inca visit such a remote island? And he was not just a common emperor, he ruled during the Golden Age of the Inca Empire and his father built Machu Picchu, the famous Peruvian landmark. Throw in a unique — still un-translated by scientists — ancient written language, along with a cult of a mystical Bird Man, and you can see why there is such interest in Easter Island.
The name
Patagonia usually sparks thoughts of
virgin landscape located in the most
remote part of the world. Patagonia is a sparsely populated region located
at the southern end of South America, shared by Argentina and Chile. The
region comprises the
southern section of the Andes mountains as well as the deserts, steppes and
grasslands east of this southern portion of the Andes. Patagonia
has
two coasts; a western one toward the Pacific Ocean and an eastern one toward the
Atlantic. Patagonia is divided into three distinctive
environments: a stormbound Pacific coast with deep fjords, an enormous
icecap (actually two icecaps separated by a few fjords), and the endless golden
plains of the
Argentine pampas. The border between southern Chile and Argentina is
probably one of the most irregular and peculiar in the world. Originally a
Spanish dominion, the first attempt to divide Patagonia between Chile and
Argentina took place in 1881 and defined the border as "the highest peaks
which divide the waters," but this appeared to be easier said than done.
There's an
area of the ice field just northwest of
Fitzroy that is still currently in dispute, and tensions are still high
around the issue ... In Argentina, you often see bumper stickers saying Los
hielos son Argentinos! (The Ice is Argentine!) and, at times, Chile puts
land mines along a section of the border.
Patagonia by #TimestormFilms (4:31)
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A Visit to 5 of Patagonia’s Most Remote Schoolhouses
Colombia | Colombia's equatorial position affords it a diversity of landscapes, climates, vegetation, soils and crops matched by few countries. In addition, a wealth of ancient civilizations left behind a fascinating spread of archaeological and cultural sites throughout Colombia. The one-time Tayrona capital, Ciudad Perdida, built between the 11th and 14th centuries, is one of the continent's most mysterious ancient cities, arguably second only to Machu Picchu. Even more shrouded in mystery is San Agustín, where more than 500 life-sized ancient sculpted statues of enigmatic origin dot the surrounding countryside. And then there's Tierradentro, where elaborate underground tombs scooped out by an unknown people add even more mystique to Colombia's past. | Colombia is Magical Realism (a travel site but some wonderful videos) | Culture | Radio Colombia (If you don’t read Spanish, use Chrome and tell Google to translate.) | Bogotá | Colombian Government and FARC Agree to Peace Pact | Sacred Sites of Colombia | In Search of Colombia’s ‘Lost City’ | What It’s Like Crossing the World's Deadliest Jungle | Politicians charge millions to send migrants to the US. | Where Anteaters and Anacondas Roam, and Ranchers Are Now Rangers | Paleo-Indians changed Latin America. Rock art proves it. | A Reggaeton ode to Colombia is a hit, but it’s not music to everyone’s ears.
Ecuador | Ecuador is four worlds in one: the Andes (La Sierra), the Amazon (El Oriente), the Pacific coast (La Costa) and the Galápagos islands (Isabela). The historic centers of Quito and Cuenca are lined with plazas, 17th-century churches and monasteries, beautifully restored mansions and Spanish colonial architecture. Beyond the cities, there are Andean villages with colorful textiles and sprawling markets, Afro-Ecuadorian towns (Afro-Ecuadorian Culture 19:13) and remote settlements in the Amazon (Auca tribe, the Huaoranis) where shamans still harvest traditional rainforest medicines. | Amazon Watch | Sacred Sites of Ecuador | Culture | How the Galápagos inspired Darwin (5:00) | Development: Ecuador | Quito Ecuador virtual tour | The Galápagos got back its giant tortoises - and a whole lot more. | Vowing to bring peace back to a shattered country, Ecuadorean President Daniel Noboa has deployed the military to take on what he calls “terrorist” groups. | Remnants of sprawling ancient cities are found in the Amazon. | What It’s Like to Live on the Galápagos Islands | Clinging to Life | He trekked up Ecuador’s tallest mountain twice a week for six decades to hack ice off a glacier with a pickax. He is believed to have been the last of his breed. | The Quest to Save the World’s Most Coveted Chocolate
The Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) are a remote South Atlantic archipelago. With rugged terrain and cliff-lined coasts, its hundreds of islands and islets are home to sheep farms and abundant birdlife. The capital, Stanley (10:28), sits on East Falkland, the largest island. The town's Falkland Islands Museum has themed galleries devoted to maritime exploration, natural history, the 1982 Falklands War, etc. As a British overseas territory, the Falklands have internal self-governance, while the United Kingdom takes responsibility for their defense and foreign affairs. | Wildlife | Culture | Falkland Islands Television | Falkland Islands War | Address by Gavin Short regarding the future of the Falklands | Whose Oil Is It?
French Guiana | French Guiana is an overseas region of France located on the north Atlantic coast of South America. The capital is Cayenne (see especially the pictures at link). Heavily-forested French Guiana was originally inhabited by indigenous people: Kalina, Arawak, Emerillon, Galibi, Palikur, Wayampi and Wayana. However, by 1852 the French had begun using the territory as a penal colony where, until 1939, deported convicts were imprisoned in dreadful conditions. Part of France since 1946, Guiana joined the European Union and its official currency is the euro. A large part of Guiana's economy comes from the presence of the Guiana Space Center at Kourou, now the European Space Agency's primary launch site near the equator.
Guyana | On expedition to the borderlands between Guyana and Brazil, Denis Katzer lived with Guyana’s last remaining Wai-Wai Indians tribe at a river bend of the Essequibo River and recorded their way of life on photo and film, thus preserving it for posterity.
Visit Guyana, the only English-speaking country in South America. Despite its mainland location, Guyana has strong cultural ties to the Caribbean.
Paraguay
| Paraguay,
a landlocked country in South America, is rich in
natural resources: the world's
largest drinking water reservoir (Guarani
Aquifer) is beneath its soil, the
biggest hydroelectric producer -- the
Itaipú Dam -- is on its border with
Brazil. It's also the world's fifth largest exporter of
soya beans, as well as a renowned
producer of beef. Despite this, it is
one of the poorest countries in South
America.
Mestizos (Spanish + Amerindian)
account for more than 80% of the population and
Guarani is, side by side with Spanish,
the country's official language.
Franciscan and Jesuit missions
mingled with the Guaranis' dream of
Yvy maraë´y, a land without evil,
and produced singular societies. The ruins of the Jesuit missions of
La Santisima Trinidad de Parana and
Jesus de Tavarangue are witnesses to
that peaceful past. Modern Paraguay is largely based on
political uncertainty and
economic hardship, and
corruption is ubiquitous.
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Sacred Sites of Paraguay
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Culture
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Geography
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El Niño Upsets Seasons and Upends Lives Worldwide
Peru | Sacred Sites of Peru | A lake that hides a 500-year-old secret | Peru’s other lost city | Visit a snow festival in the Peruvian Andes that marks the start of the harvest season. | Learn Peru's hidden history, from the cloud forests of Amazonas to the volcanic city of Arequipa.
No one knows exactly what Nazca Lines are. The only indisputable fact is that they are located in South America, at the Nazca Desert plateau in the southern part of Peru. However this is where the indisputable facts end, leaving scientists with numerous unsolved mysteries. Scattered around the plateau, the lines are gigantic geoglyphs representing geometrical and natural objects. They are carved about 4.5 feet wide and 1-1.5 feet deep in the ground. It is impossible to recognize an actual image from the ground level as one can only see the big picture from the distance. This is why the Nazca Lines were discovered only in 1939 when airplane flights became possible. Ever since that time, scientists have searched for answers. The majority of them share the opinion that the lines were created by the Nazca Civilization that flourished on the plateau from 100 BCE to 800 CE, long before the Inca Civilization. But what purpose did the lines serve? The themes of Nazca Lines include flowers, geometric shapes, animals, birds and even insects. The smallest figure is a 151-foot spider and the largest is a 935-foot pelican. You might also be interested in The Geoglyphs in Palpa Valley, South America, Peru. | The Ancient Peruvian Mystery Solved from Space
The
American explorer
Hiram Bingham III
spent a great deal of time exploring South America in the early 20th century and
writing about his journey from Buenos Aires, Argentina, to Lima, Peru. He is
best known for his discovery of Machu Picchu — even though we has wrong about
it. Bingham thought it was the lost city of Vilcabamba, another site he'd been
searching for. In fact, Machu Picchu was built in the 15th century as a summer
home for an Incan emperor named Pachacuti. Despite the explorer's error, Machu
Picchu is considered one of the greatest archaeological finds ever. Bingham also
served as a history professor at both Harvard and Yale, and he is listed as one
of the inspirations for the movie character Indiana Jones.
Machu Picchu, the ancient city of the Inca Empire, is a 15th-century Inca site located 7,970 ft above sea level. It is situated on a mountain ridge above the Sacred Valley which is 50 miles northwest of Cuzco and through which the Urubamba River flows. Most archaeologists believe that Machu Picchu was built as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti (1438–1472). Often mistakenly referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas" (a title more accurately applied to Vilcabamba), it is the most familiar icon of Inca civilization. The Incas built the estate around 1450, but abandoned it a century later at the time of the Spanish Conquest. Although known locally, it was not known to the Spanish during the colonial period and remained unknown to the outside world before being brought to international attention in 1911 by the American historian Hiram Bingham.
What is life like in the Andes Mountains? Living as an American archaeology student in Peru | Cultures of the Andes in pictures, music and stories provided by Ada and Russ Gibbons | Learn about the Incan language of Quechua.
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are sub-Antarctic islands. They are governed together as a British overseas territory. South Georgia is one of the most visited locations in Antarctica. It is spectacularly picturesque and is frequently described as being "The Alps in the mid-ocean." Over half the island is permanently glaciated, wildlife is abundant, approaches by sea usually straightforward and it is steeped in the history of Antarctic exploration and of Antarctic whalers and sealers. The only permanent population is a manned British Antarctic survey base of up to 18 people at Grytviken. The South Sandwich Islands on the other hand are isolated and are not often visited other than by survey ships on scientific excursions. The prevailing weather conditions usually make the approach difficult since the islands rise very steeply out of the sea and are subject to active volcanism. The only access to South Georgia or the South Sandwich Islands is by sea. The UK has claimed and exercised de facto control over the islands since 1775. Argentina claimed sovereignty in 1927 and, although its 1982 military incursion was unsuccessful, continues to push its claims. | Global Ocean Legacy | Pictures | Resurrection Island
Suriname lies on the northeast coast of South America and gets its name from its earliest inhabitants, the Surinen Indians. Dutch colonization was confined to a narrow coastal strip, while escaped African slaves fled into the interior and reconstituted their western African culture. Suriname is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in the Americas. Most of its people are descended from African slaves, and Indian and Indonesian indentured servants brought over by the Dutch to work as agricultural laborers. However, there is little assimilation between the different ethnic groups, which confine their contacts to the economic sphere. Similarly, most political parties are ethnically based. Since gaining its independence from the Netherlands in 1975, the small country has been plagued by military dictators, coups d’état, armed rebellion, civil war, inflation, unemployment, border disputes and natural disasters. Suriname’s capital is Paramaribo. The country depends heavily on mining and processing its declining reserves of bauxite.
Uruguay | Uruguay is a food-exporting country known for its verdant interior and beach-lined coast. The capital, Montevideo, revolves around Plaza Independencia, once home to a Spanish citadel. The plaza leads to Ciudad Vieja (2:32), with art deco buildings, colonial homes and Mercado del Puerto, an old port market. Uruguay has always been something of an underdog. Yet after two centuries living in the shadow of its neighbors, South America’s smallest country is finally getting recognition for its political, economic and social stability. It has less economic disparity, the best overall road system, the most reliable electrical grid and one of the fastest overall internet speeds than anyplace else in Latin America, quality medical care, safe drinking water and good public transportation, and is noted for tolerance and inclusiveness. | LANIC: Uruguay | Uruguay Timeline | Traditions and Folklore | Uruguay Media | What does sustainable living look like? Maybe like Uruguay | Uruguay’s center left reclaims power in presidential election.
Venezuela | Sacred Sites of Venezuela | How Bad Off Is Oil-Rich Venezuela? It’s Buying US Oil | The Guardian: Venezuela | Expedition to the headwaters of the Orinoco, looking for the Yanomami Indians | Venezuela’s presidential contender flees, and hopes for democracy dim.
Imagine high mountains with steep vertical walls and flat tops in the middle of dense jungles. On the tops, water accumulates after even a slight amount of rainfall, eventually coming down in numerous waterfalls. One of these, Angel Falls, Venezuela, is the highest waterfall in the world. The highest point of the falls reaches 3,200 feet, with water falling from a height of 2,600 feet. The height of the falls is so great that by the time the water reaches the ground it has become tiny particles that turn into fog. Venezuela is also home to tepui mountain formations. A tepui (or tepuy) is a strange-looking mountain with a flat top called a "table-top" (because it is flat like a table). These unique geological formations are found mostly in the Venezuelan Guiana Highland. The word tepui comes from the language of the Pemon Indians and means ‘house of the gods.' The tepui formations are completely isolated from each other. Each tepui towers over the jungle making it a home to unique plants and animals.
There are lots of pictures so it may take a minute for the page to open!
Joe Simon took his Canon 5D Mark III to Rio and what he captured is beyond lovely.
He rode cable cars and filmed at popular locations to get all the footage and
he made Rio De Janeiro look like another level beyond paradise.
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